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THE     PATH     OF 
E  V  O.L.U  T  I  O  N 

THROUGH   ANCIENT  THOUGHT 
AND      MODERN     SCIENCE. 


BY 

HENRY    PEMBERTON 

MEMBER     OF 

AMERICAN    PHILOSOPHICAL    SOCIETY 

ACADEMY    OF    NATURAL    SCIENCES,     OF    PHILADELPHIA 
HISTORICAL    SOCIETY    OF    PENNA.,     ETC. 


'Excelsior  Coelo  est,  et  quid  facies  ? 
Profundior  inferno,  et  unde  cognosces? 


PHILADELPHIA 

HENRY  ALTEMUS  COMPANY 


Tt 


Copyright,  1902,  by  Henry  Altemus. 


2>etncatet> 

TO     THE     MEMORY     OP 
MY  BELOVED  WIFE, 

AGNES.  W.  PEMBERTON, 

AT    WHOSE    EARNEST    DESIRE 

AND    WISHES    OFTEN    EXPRESSED 

THIS    BOOK    WAS    WRITTEN. 


421277 


PREFACE 


THE  sketch  here  given  of  the  evolution  of  knowl- 
edge and  the  doctrine  of  the  evolution  of  life  is  the 
effort  to  place  in  a  connected  historical  relation  the 
questions  discussed  and  partly  answered  in  my  home. 
To  those  who  are  versed  in  the  several  sciences  touched 
upon  the  treatment  thereof  may  seem  to  be  too  super- 
ficial, dealing  mainly  with  the  beginnings  of  principles 
and  teachings  that  even  a  child  might  know.  But  it  is 
the  beginnings  of  things  that  are  often  least  well 
•  known.  The  questions  that  a  child  might  ask  the 
wisest  man  can  scarcely  answer.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  problems  of  the  Ether  and  of  Gravitation  are  yet 
unsolved,  and  by  many  men  are  thought  to  be  in- 
solvable. 

The  views  taken  of  man's  place  in  nature  and  his 
relation  to  the  Higher  Power  are  those,  I  believe,  that 
are  held  by  most  scientific  men  ;  but  since  no  two 

(v) 


PREFACE 

men  think  exactly   alike   a  general  concordance  in 
thought  is  all  that  can  be  looked  for. 

The  "  Path  of  Evolution  "  was  written  nearly  five 
years  ago.  Domestic  sorrows  and  personal  illness 
caused  it  to  be  laid  aside  for  several  years.  A  few 
pages  descriptive  of  late  discoveries  have  since  been 
added. 

H.  P. 

194?  Locust  Street,  Philadelphia. 
November,  1902. 

(vi) 


CONTENTS 


Preface v 

Introduction  .        .        .      ' .        •     .  •       •    •  .        .        .        .    xi 

CHAPTER  I 

The  downfall  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the  West  and  the  ex- 
tinction of  learning,  to  the  re-opening  of  the  Schools  of  CHAR- 
LEMAGNE—The  Arabian  and  the  Jewish  Philosophy  .  .  1 

CHAPTER  II 

The  Birth  of  the  Scholastic  Philosophy  to  the  Death  of  ROGER 
BACON 23 

CHAPTER  III 

The  belief  in  Astrology  and  'Alchemy— Their  indirect  benefit  to 
mankind— The  Belief  in  Witchcraft 37 

CHAPTER  IV 

The  publication  of  the  true  Planetary  System  by  COPERNICUS — 
It  escapes  for  fifty  years  the  notice  of  the  Church  .  .  .46 


v/3 


CHAPTER  V 

IORDANO  BRUNO  advocates  the  Copernican  Astronomy  and  the 
Plurality  of  Worlds— Arrested  by  the  Holy  Inquisition— Im- 
prisoned for  seven  years ;  then  burned  alive — His  Views  and 
Doctrines  .  .  .  .  .' 51 


CHAPTER  VI 

Extension  of  the  study  of  Philosophy  among  the  Laity  —  Life  and 
writings  of  DESCARTES—  Opposition  to  the  Aristotelian  dog- 
mas and  to  all  authority  that  could  control  thought  and  learn- 


ing 


62 


(vii) 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VII 

The  Writers  who,  with  Descartes,  gave  rise  to  the  Cartesian  Phil- 
osophy   72 

CHAPTER  VIII 

SIR  FRANCIS  BACON — Origin  of  the  Inductive  Philosophy  and  the 
scientific  investigation  of  Nature 84 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Observation  of  Nature  and  of  Natural  Phenomena — GALILEO 
GALILEI — His  life  and  discoveries 91 

CHAPTER  X 

SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON — His  Life  and  Discoveries  in  Mathematics — 
The  Properties  of  Light  and  Laws  of  Gravitation — His  dislike 
of  theorizing 106 

CHAPTER  XI 

LUCRETIUS'S  Theory  of  the  Atoms — The  Existence  of  the  Ethereal 
Medium— Transmission  of  Light  and  Heat— Nature  of  Sound  118 

CHAPTER  XII 

Gravitation— The  Properties  of  Matter— The  Kinetic  Theory  and 
Nature  of  Gases 142 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Constitution  of  Matter— Chemistry— The  Elements— The  Phlo- 
giston Theory— LAVOISIER— Oxygen  and  Combustion  .  .161 

CHAPTER  XIV 

The  theory  of  the  Chemical  Atoms — JOHN  DALTON — Law  of  defi- 
nite Proportions — Indestructibility  of  the  Atoms — Molecular 
Formations — Crystallization  .  .  .  •  .*  '  .  .168 

CHAPTER  XV 

Action  of  Chemical  Affinity — Galvanic  action — Magnetism — 
Electricity — The  Kathode  and  Rontgen  Rays — Persistence  of 
Energy — Solar  Heat  the  scource  of  all  Energy — Origin  of  Solar 
Heat — Properties  and  Action  of  the  Ether — Dissipation  of 
Energy — Entropy 17£( 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XVI 

Geognosy  and  formation  of  the  Earth's  Crust — Eesume  of  the 
past  pages •  .  .  •  .202 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Life— Life  comes  only  from  Life— Haeckel's  Monera— -Bacteria 
— The  Phagocytes,  or  White  Corpuscles 212 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

The  Fungi— Can  live  on  organized  food  only— The  cause  of  Fer- 
mentation— Mushrooms — Lichens,  their  important  functions — 
Curious  anomaly  in  their  structure '  228 

CHAPTER  XIX 

Algse — Seaweed — Chlorophyll  cells,  their  origin  and  use — Effect 
of  Rays  of  Light — The  providers  of  Oxygen — All  Life  impos- 
sible without  Chlorophyll— Light  and  Heat  essential  to  its 
action 238 

CHPTER  XX 

The  transference  of  Energy  from  Lower  to  Higher  Organization 
— Reproduction  in  the  Algse — Agamic  and  Sexual  .  .  .  249 

CHAPTER  XXI 

The  Phanerogama,  or  Flowering  Plants — Construction  of  Fertiliz- 
ing Organs — Seeds — Germination — Cuttings  .  .  .  258 

CHAPTER  XXII 

Sensation  in  Plants — Vital  Energy  in  the  Ether — Incubation  of 
the  egg — Progressive  changes  therein 271 

CHAPTER  XXIII 
Evolution  of  Life — Original  Meaning  of  the  word — HUXLEY'S 
Definition — The  Precursors  of  DARWIN — MONBODDO — LAMARCK 
—The  Origin  of  Species  , 286 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

The  Brain  in  Man  and  in  Animals — Structureless,  Conscious 
Beings — The  Organic  Mechanism  the  Vehicle,  not  the  Cause, of 
Life— The  Potency  of  Life  in  Seeds  not  Life  itself;  uninjured 

by  extreme  cold          •  ' 299 

(ix) 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXV 

Evolution  of  Man— Huxley's  View— HaeckePs  View— His 
Sunken  Continent — Language,  Writing,  Printing — The  Course 
of  Evolution — Embryology — The  Manifestation  of  Him  in 
whom  we  live  and  move  and  have  our  being  .  .  .  312 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

All  Ultimate  Causes  incomprehensible— Unknown  Nature  of 
Chemical  Affinity — An  Overruling  Power  known  by  its  works 
— The  Mind  can  conceive  its  own  semblance  only — The  Prob- 
lems  of  Sin  and  Death— The^Answer  of  Evolution  .  .  •.  324 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

Young  Animals — Infancy — Childhood — Discipline    of  Life  in 
Man;  in  Woman — Mental  Differences  in  Sex — Schopenhauer's 
Pessimism 335 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

Youthful  Love — Marriage — A  Mother's  Love — The  Lessons  of 
Life — The  duty  of  Learning  the  Psychical  and  Moral  Laws 
as  well  as  the  Physical  Laws  .  •.  •  •  •  .  .  347 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

Atavism  and  Crime,  physical  and  moral — Utter  selfishness — 
Criminality— Brutality— Punishment  should  be  Deterrent  and 
Preventive,  not  Revengeful  .  .  .  «  .  •  .  355 

CHAPTER  XXX 

Fear  for  the  Future— The  Dread  of  Death— Retrospect  of  Life— 
The  Gospel  of  Evolution — The  Question  of  a  Future  Life  .  363 

w 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  desire  to  obtain  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
unknown  is  inborn  in  the  human  mind.  The  veriest 
savage,  ignorant  of  the  causes  of  all  phenomena,  yet 
ascribes  an  animating  spirit  to  the  force  that  the 
waves  exert,  to  the  wind  he  feels,  or  to  the  swaying 
branches  of  the  trees  he  sees  around  him.  To  liken 
the  cause  of  their  movements  to  that  vitality  which  he 
is  dimly  conscious  of  in  himself  is  for  him  a  sufficient 
explanation.  In  the  olden  days  of  Greece  the  minds 
of  men  peopled  the  woods,  streams  and  ocean  with 
beings  more  or  less  like  themselves,  but  more  spiritual 
in  their  nature.  The  Dryads,  Nymphs  or  Demi- 
gods dwelt  therein,  ruled  the  elementary  forces,  and 
thus  satisfactorily  accounted  for  the  phenomena  of 
nature.  As  men  grew  wiser  they  recognized  that 
these  beings  were  only  the  objective  creations  of  their 
own  thoughts ;  they  had  given  to  "Airy  nothings  a 
local  habitation  and  a  name/'  yet  they  despised  the 
search  into  the  phenomena  of  Nature,  since  they 

(xi) 


INTR  OD  UCTION 

believed  Matter  was  in  itself  ignoble,  and  the  study 
thereof  degrading.  They  had  an  exaggerated  con- 
ception of  the  power  of  the  mind  and  of  its  capacity. 
Most  men  believed  that  the  ideas  of  things  existed 
before  their  realities,  were  of  a  purer,  and  there- 
fore of  a  nobler  nature,  and  that  the  mind  of  man 
offered  the  only  field  for  study.  *  Ignorant  of  all 
relative  knowledge,  they  yet  hoped  to  discover  the 
secret  of  existence;  to  know  the  ABSOLUTE — THE 
UNCONDITIONED — by  introspection,  and  by  con- 
verting their  subjective  thought  into  objective 
theories  to  obtain  true  knowledge.  Metaphysicians 
still  so  try,  will  continue  so  to  do,  but  will  try  in 
vain.  So  long  as  men  employ  deductive  reasoning 
only,  from  a-priori  convictions,  no  evolution  of  real 
knowledge  is  possible. 

With  the  method  of  inductive  reasoning  came 
gradually  the  accumulations  of  observed  facts,  and 
the  discovery  that  these  facts  were  not  the  accidental 
result  of  irregular  causes,  but  were  the  consequence 
of  definite,  uniform  actions  or  conditions.  Men 
found  that  these  actions  or  conditions  indefinitely  re- 
peated would  always  produce  the  same  result.  To 
them  were  applied  the  term  "Laws  of  Nature." 
Usually  these  laws  do  not  explain  the  cause  of  a 
fact  or  occurrence,  but  only  assert  its  invariability. 
The  explanation  of  a  phenomenon  generally  consists 

(xii) 


INTR  OD  UCTIOti 

in  showing  the  existence  and  its  connection  therewith 
of  earlier  phenomena,  or  the  exertion  of  earlier  forces 
of  wider  generalization  than  the  one  observed,  thus 
linking  the  phenomena  together  into  systems  of 
greater  or  lesser  similarity.  Often  this  systematic 
grouping  is  accepted  as  an  explanation;  as  such  it 
is  valuable,  and  is  sufficient  for  practical  purposes ; 
what  is  called  the  "  Study  of  the  Sciences "  usually 
goes  no  further.  If  an  explanation  is  sought  for 
still  further  and  further  back,  it  is  ultimately  found 
that  alternatives  are  presented,  each  of  which  is  be- 
yond our  apprehension,  or  that  we  cannot  form  even 
in  idea  an  explanation  thereof.  We  have  approached 
the  question  of  a  FIRST  CAUSE.  It  lies  beyond  the 
limit  of  our  faculties. 

In  order  rightly  to  understand  the  philosophy  that 
modern  science  teaches,  and  the  difference  between  it 
and  the  metaphysics  and  philosophy  of  olden  times, 
a  short  sketch  of  the  decline  of  learning  in  the  Dark 
Ages  and  its  subsequent  rise  into  the  Scholasticism 
of  the  Middle  Ages  is  necessary.  The  conservation 
of  the  literature  of  antiquity' by  the  Arabs  and  the 
Hebrews,  until  the  Clergy  in  Europe  were  capable  of 
utilizing  it,  is  included  therein. 

The  gross  ignorance  of  the  laity  and  clergy 
throughout  Europe  in  the  7th,  8th  and  9th  Centuries 
was  long-continued.  Charlemagne  in  the  end  of  the 


INTRODUCTION 

8th  Century  ordered  the  opening  of  schools,  but  more 
than  two  centuries  again  passed  away  before  learning 
had  made  much  progress.  A  rapid  survey  is  there- 
fore made  of  the  first  stage  therein — the  Philosophy 
of  Scholasticism,  apart  from  its  merely  dialectic  teach- 
ing, but  embracing  the  conflicting  views  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle,  the  ideal  existence  of  Form  and  Matter,  and 
the  foundation  upon  which  rest  the  diverse  doctrines 
of  the  Realists  and  Nominalists.  ' 

The  emptiness  of  scholastic  learning  caused 
ROGER  BACON  to  revolt  against  such  teaching. 
He  was  wise  beyond  his  time,  and  suffered,  as  such 
men  often  suffer:  a  wasted  life  and  long  imprisonment 
as  a  reward  for  his  premature  wisdom. 

The  philosophy  and  learning  of  the  "Schoolmen" 
produced  no  useful  results.  All  persons  then  believed 
in  "  a-priori "  reasoning  only,  and  looked  with  con- 
tempt upon  the  investigation  of  Nature  and  upon 
empirical  research.  The  belief  in  Alchemy  and  in 
Astrology  was  widespread  and  general.  Alchemy 
was  pursued  chiefly  in  the  search  for  the  "  Philoso- 
pher's Stone,"  or  power  of  transmuting  other  metals 
into  gold.  Astrology  was  sought  for  to  render  its 
magic  aid.  Yet  these  false  sciences,  by  causing  men 
to  experiment,  to  watch  phenomena  and  observe  the 
heavens,  taught  mankind  far  more  than  a  thousand 

(xiv) 


INTRODUCTION 

years  of  Monastic  study  and  Scholastic  teaching  had 
accomplished. 

The  introduction  of  the  art  of  printing  soon  wit- 
nessed, if  it  did  not  produce,  the  downfall  of  Scholas- 
ticism, The  greater  facility  in  obtaining  books 
awakened  men's  minds  to  a  desire  for  the  acquirement 
of  knowledge.  As  milestones  on  the  path  of  progress 
short  sketches  are  given  of  the  life  and  work  of  a  few 
distinctive  men,  each  of  whom  in  turn  has  been  the 
centre  from  which  new  learning  started.  All  of  these 
great  men,  though  original  thinkers,  followed  only 
the  method  of  a-priori  reasoning.  Experimental  re- 
search and  critical  observation  as  yet  scarcely  existed, 
possibly  with  the  exception  of  the  work  of  Copernicus, 
who  appears  to  have  well  studied  the  heavens. 

Earlier  in  date,  but  later  in  the  actual  advancement 
of  human  knowledge  than  Descartes,  LORD  BACON 
formulated  the  method  of  the  Inductive  Philosophy, 
and  established  the  use  and  the  dignity  of  the  study 
of  Nature.  Bacon  preached  better  than  he  practised. 
He  made  few  practical  investigations,  and  never  ac- 
cepted the  Copernican  Astronomy  that  Galileo  had 
so  ably  demonstrated. 

With  GALILEO  a  new  school  began.  To  the  abil- 
ity of  a  Mathematician,  which  most  of  those  al- 
ready mentioned  also  possessed,  he  added  the  power 
of  accurate  observation  and  the  careful  consideration  of 

(XV) 


INTRODUCTION 

the  facts  obtained.  With  him  began  the  practical 
application  of  inductive  reasoning. 

With  SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON  may  be  said  to  have 
commenced  nearly  all  that  we  know  of  Modern 
Science.  To  his  discoveries  of  the  compound  struc- 
ture of  a  ray  of  light,  the  theory  of  colors  and  the 
laws  of  gravitation,  are  due  the  facts  which  establish 
the  generalizations  that  unite  our  planet  with  the 
whole  universe.  They  prove  that  of  the  thousands 
of  millions  of  stars  that  exist,  each  is  undoubtedly  a 
central  sun  in  planetary  systems  of  worlds  somewhat 
like  our  own  ;  which  are  governed  by  the  laws  that 
govern  ours,  and  probably  have  sentient  beings  on 
them  as  wise  or  possibly  far  wiser  than  ourselves. 

In  treating  of  the  Interstellar  Ether,  whose  existence 
Newton  postulated  as  essential  to  the  theory  of  light 
and  probably  that  of  gravitation,  a  disproportionate 
space  is  devoted,  from  the  desire  to  call  attention  to 
the  assured  existence  and  probable  nature  of  that  al- 
most incomprehensible  substance :  the  carrier  of  all 
Energy,  that  is  within  and  through  all  matter,  that 
extends  beyond  the  most  distant  Star,  that  brings  us 
light  and  life,  but  of  which  we  really  know  almost 
absolutely  nothing.  The  belief  in  the  existence  of  the 
Ether,  advocated  by  Democritus  nearly  500  years  B. 
C.,  has  of  late  years  grown  into  general  acceptance, 
since  it  serves  to  explain  the  transmission  of  light, 

(xvi) 


INTRODUCTION 

heat  and  the  electric  waves.  The  Kinetic  Theory  of 
Gases,  now  firmly  established,  showing  the  molecules 
of  all  gases  to  be  in  constant,  rapid,  translatory  mo- 
tion, producing  thereby  the  effects  of  the  pressure  and 
expansion  of  gases,  has  a  strong  analogy  with  what 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Atomic  structure  of  the  Ether. 
Our  atmosphere,  a  gas,  while  preserving  the  indi- 
vidual motion  of  its  molecules  and  the  statical  pres- 
sure of  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch  upon  our 
bodies,  as  upon  all  substances,  is  yet  insensible  to  us 
so  long  as  the  pressure  on  all  sides  is  alike,  yet  it  is 
also  the  medium  whose  vibrations  cause  sound.  All 
production  or  conveyance  of  sound  ceases  with  the 
withdrawal  of  the  air.  Nature  is  parsimonious  in 
the  employment  of  her  Ministers.  She  requires  of 
the  atmosphere  not  only  the  service  stated,  but 
makes  it  also  the  reservoir  of  the  oxygen  we  breathe, 
the  storehouse  of  carbon  dioxide,  kept  therein  until 
wanted  for  the  life  of  the  growing  plant,  the  supporter 
of  combustion,  the  distributor  of  water  throughout 
the  land,  and  the  conservator  of  heat;  while  the 
winds  thereof  are  their  own  conveyers  of  physical 
motion,  are  the  forces  that  move  the  waves,  wrestle 
with  the  forests,  and  scatter  seeds  and  pollen  through- 
out the  land.  So  also  the  Ether  should  have  many 
duties.  It  is  the  medium  through  which  Life  is  given ; 
whether  only  through  the  light  and  heat  it  brings, 

(xvii) 


INTR  OD  UCTION 

or  whether  in  addition  thereto  its  atoms  take  part  in 
inducing  new  groupings  of  the  existent  chemical  mo- 
lecules, are  questions  that  are  as  yet  beyond  the  result 
of  human  investigation. 

Had  the  brilliant  mind  of  J.  CLERK  MAXWELL 
(1831-1879)  been  spared  to  the  world  a  few  years 
longer,  he  would  probably  have  added  as  much  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  Ether  as  his  genius  had  done 
to  the  theories  of  Electro-Magnetism.  (See  his 
articles  "Atom,  Attraction,  Ether,"  etc.,  Encyclopaedia 
Brittanica.  9th  edit.) 

When  men  began  seriously  to  investigate  phe- 
nomena under  the  light  of  inductive  reasoning,  almost 
the  first  step  was  to  discard  the  old  views  of  the  com- 
position of  Matter  and  the  vague  four  elements  of  the 
Alchemists :  Air,  Water,  Earth  and  Fire,  that  lent  to 
substance  its  properties.  Then  was  substituted  there- 
fore the  definition  of  an  element  in  its  chemical 
meaning :  "A  substance  that  cannot  be  separated  into 
its  constituents/'  This  definition  conferred  individual 
characteristics  upon  the  atoms  postulated  by  Democ- 
ritus  that  by  him  were  considered  without  properties 
other  than  having  motion;  the  four  elements:  Air, 
Water,  Fire,  etc.,  furnishing  the  "  accidents "  that 
distinguished  the  kinds  of  matter.  From  the  true 
conception  of  the  elements  soon  arose  that  of  their 
molecular  groupings  and  the  laws  of  chemical  affinity ; 

(xviii) 


INTRODUCTION 

the  false  but  plausible  theory  of  Phlogiston  interpos- 
ing, and  delaying  for  generations  the  true  explanation 
of  combustion,  of  respiration,  and  of  numerous  other 
phenomena  that  are  connected  with  free  oxygen  and 
with  its  many  compounds. 

Upon  the  knowledge  obtained  through  the  Science 
of  CHEMISTRY  nearly  all  the  progress  made  in  other 
sciences  depends.  Through  it  we  have  learned  of 
what  the  animal,  plant  and  mineral  realms  are  made, 
of  what  our  globe  is  composed,  and,  most  wonderful 
of  all,  with  the  help  of  spectral  analysis,  we  are 
taught  whether  the  far  distant  stars  are  moving  towards 
us  or  away  from  us,  of  what  elements  these  glowing 
orbs  are  composed,  and  we  have  even  discovered  in 
the  sun  certain  elements  before  they  were  known  or 
met  with  on  this  earth.  Chemistry  has  also  proved 
to  us  the  indestructibility  of  Matter.  We  can  make 
or  break  up  many  compounds  ;  they  are  groupings  of 
atoms  into  molecules  that  can  be  separated  again  into 
atoms,  but  the  atoms  can  neither  be  made  nor  can 
they  be  destroyed.  They  are  imperishable.  In  like 
manner  Energy  can  neither  be  made  nor  can  it  be  de- 
stroyed. The  changes  that  can  be  induced  in  its 
form  or  manifestations  are  endless,  but  man  cannot 
bring  it  into  being  from  nothing,  nor  can  he  annihil- 
ate it. 

Any  change  in  chemical   combinations  is  always 

(xix) 


tNTJt  OD  UCTION 

attended  with  the  development  or  the  absorption  of 
heat,  and  also  with  manifestations  of  electrical  phe- 
nomena. Heat  and  electricity  themselves  induce 
chemical  changes.  These  relations  indicate  that 
chemical  affinity,  like  heat  and  electricity,  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  properties  of  the  Ether,  but  what 
chemical  affinity  is,  or  why  it  acts,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  conceive.  The  possible  cause  of  Static 
electricity  and  of  electro-conductivity — the  Ions  of 
the  Ethereal  molecules — has  been  suggested  by  the 
Writer.  A  description  of  the  generation  of  the 
Kathode  and  of  the  Rontgen  rays  has  also  been  in- 
cluded. 

The  Geogony  of  the  earth  covers  too  wide  a  field 
to  be  more  than  merely  named.  A  suggestion  is  made 
of  the  probable  origin  of  carbo-h yd  rides  from  inor- 
ganic changes.  Since  writing  this  M.  Moissan  has 
shown  the  probable  production  of  Petroleum  in  the 
earth  from  metallic  Carbides. 

The  fleeting  view  thus  taken  of  the  phenomena  of 
the  inorganic  world  shows  that  all  knowledge  thereof 
has  only  been  obtained  by  the  close  observation  of 
countless  individual  facts.  By  classifying  them  into 
groups  of  more  or  less  general  similarity,  and  noting 
their  accordance  with  or  divergence  from  some  com- 
mon principle,  mode  of  action  or  of  force,  we  think 
we  understand  their  nature  and  what  they  are.  But 

(XX) 


INTR  OD  UCTION 

when  we  try  to  know  this  principle,  action  or  force, 
what  it  is,  we  find  it  is  beyond  our  comprehension. 
The  phenomena  are  co-related ;  each  involves  the  co- 
existence of  other  phenomena  that  precede  or  follow 
it.  Their  connection  and  their  sequence  are  learned, 
but  sooner  or  later  we  are  led  to  ultimate  causes  that 
are  past  understanding.  This  is  the  case  with  all 
we  know  of  the  mineral  or  inorganic  world.  It  is 
even  far  more  so  with  the  organic  world,  when  we 
look  upon  that  which  has  Life. 

The  truth  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Evolution  of  Life, 
including  the  Origin  of  Species,  has  ceased  for  years 
to  be  a  debatable  question  among  men  of  scientific 
learning.  Though  from  the  nature  of  its  subject  it 
is  incapable  of  mathematical  demonstration,  yet  the 
facts  supporting  its  truth  are  so  convincing  to  the 
mind  and  so  well  established  that,  like  Newton's  law 
of  gravitation,  the  theory  is  now  beyond  discussion. 
Like  Newton's  law,  also,  this  doctrine  at  first  met 
with  violent  'opposition.  Each  changed  and  over- 
threw old,  long-established,  orthodox  beliefs ;  for  over 
one  hundred  years  Newton's  theory  of  gravitation 
was  rejected  by  many  ;  was  considered  to  be  atheistic 
and  impious.  From  similar  reasons,  about  fifty 
years  ago,  intense  indignation  and  excitement  was 
caused  by  the  publication  of  the  "  Vestiges  of  Crea- 
tion," an  imperfect  theory  of  natural  evolution.  The 

(xxi) 


INTRODUCTION 

opposition  to  it  has  long  since  died.  The  theory  of 
the  Evolution  of  Life  and  the  Origin  of  Species,  sup- 
ported by  the  writings  of  Darwin,  Wallace,  Huxley 
and  others,  has  been  accepted  and  defended  even  in 
the  pulpits  of  our  land. 

To  many  persons  who  have  been  educated  with 
different  ideas,  even  especially  with  those  studying 
only  certain  branches  of  science,  the  break  between 
the  old  train  of  thought,  or  what  was  believed  to  be 
true,  and  the  teaching  of  modern  science  is  so  great 
as  to  be  bewildering.  They  have  to  discard  from 
their  minds  so  much  which  has  proved  to  be  erroneous 
that  it  would  seem  that  nothing  might  be  left.  The 
neglect  of  all  philosophy  other  than  that  contained 
in  the  proximate  principles  of  Chemistry,  Physics, 
Biology,  Medicine,  or  whatever  else  might  be  the 
immediate  subject  of  study,  leaves  its  students  in  pos- 
session of  an  imperfect  knowledge  only  of  the  secondary 
causes.  Each  branch  of  Science,  being  dissociated 
from  other  branches,  prevents  that  generalization  of 
knowledge  upon  which  the  Philosophy  of  Evolution, 
as  well  as  all  other  Philosophies,  must  be  grounded. 
In  consequence  thereof  many  students  of  the  sciences 
are  apt  to  drop  into  a  shallow  Positivism,  or  into 
what  they  mistake  for  Agnosticism,  but  which  is  really 
only  mere  negation  founded  on  Ignorance.  On  the 
other  hand,  many  people  who  desire  to  know  the 
(xxii) 


INTRODUCTION 

• 
principles  of  Evolution,  among  them  often  women  of 

clear  and  cultivated  minds,  are  driven  from  its  study 
by  hearing  that  it  is  pure  Materialism  only ;  that  it 
may  destroy  the  belief  they  have  and  give  nothing 
in  its  place.  That  such  a  view  is  erroneous  is  here 
endeavored  to  be  shown. 

The  problems  that  present  themselves  in  consider- 
ing the  Doctrine  of  Evolution,  and  what  it  is  that 
constitutes  Life,  lie  necessarily  within  the  limits  be- 
fore described,  that  of  the  study  of  secondary  causes, 
but  constantly  approach  that  line  which  cannot  be 
crossed.  Yet  in  striving  to  learn  what  we  cannot 
learn,  we  are  often  able  to  know  better  that  which  is 
within  our  reach ;  to  recognize  how  all  the  processes 
of  Nature  are  intertwined  ;  how  the  properties  of  one 
division  of  substances  are  dependent  upon  or  avail- 
able for  the  continuance  of  other  phenomena  of  a 
widely  different  order.  We  can  see  that  this  little 
globe  is  a  Cosmos,  in  which  the  imponderable  and 
the  ponderable,  the  inorganic  and  the  organic,  the 
plant  and  the  animal,  the  living  and  the  dead,  are 
concatenated :  each  link  therein  an  essential  part  of 
all.  Many  of  these-  relations  we  know,  of  many 
others  we  still  are  ignorant. 

Haeckel,  Huxley  and  many  other  Bioligists  some 
years  ago  rejected  and  even  ridiculed  the  existence 
of  a  Vital  Force,  believing  that  all  the  phenomena 

(xxiii) 


INTR  ODUCTION 

that  organic  structure  and  that  Life  exhibit  are  suf- 
ficiently explained  by  the  laws  and  actions  of  chemical 
affinity,  and  therefore  that  the  existence  of  any  force 
called  Vitality  is  unfounded  and  superfluous.  This 
view  has  lost  credence  to  a  great  extent  within  a  few 
years  past,  by  the  disproof  of  the  main  foundation  on 
which  it  rested — the  doctrine  of  Spontaneous  Genera- 
tion. The  closer  relations  that  have  been  established 
between  the  phenomena  of  Physics  and  of  Chemistry, 
the  conservation  of  Energy,  and  the  acceptance  of  the 
existence  of  the  Ether,  have  widened  the  field  of  in- 
vestigation, and  even  led  to  the  possibility  that  what 
were  considered  the  "  Ultima  Thule "  in  chemical 
science,  the  atoms,  may  be  a  compound,  a  pro- 
duct of  the  Ether.  The  phenomena  that  Life  offers 
are  more  than  those  of  Chemistry  and  Physics. 

The  examination  of  the  manifestations  of  Life 
should  begin  with  its  development  in  its  simplest 
shapes,  the  "  Monera "  of  Haeckel :  those  forms  of 
which  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  they  are  plants 
or  are  animals.  Among  them,  or  closely  related 
thereto,  are  the  Bacteria  and  similar  low  forms  of 
Life.  The  evil  and  the  good  that  they  give  rise  to 
are  pointed  out.  In  what  way  Life  manifests  itself 
and  is  transmitted  without  change  in  the  lowest  forms 
of  beings,  by  division  or  gemmation,  and  in  the  pro- 
gressively higher  forms  by  asexual  and  sexual  genera- 

(xxiv) 


INTRODUCTION' 

tion,  is  shown  by  describing  in  detail  the  processes 
in  the  lowest  life,  in  PLANT  life  and  in  flowers.  The 
conditions  that  give  rise  to  the  variation  of  species 
and  the  benefits  and  evils  from  atavism  are  briefly 
noticed.  The  nature  of  the  Fungi  family  and  the 
curious  composite  state  of  Lichens  are  considered. 
The  all-important  part  held  in  Nature  by  the  Chlo- 
rophyll cells  in  the  leaves  of  plants,  without  whose 
functions  all  plant  and  animal  life  on  this  earth 
would  soon  cease,  have  received  attention,  and  par- 
tial explanation  of  their  action  is  given.  The  flor- 
escence of  plants,  the  fertilization,  the  germination 
and  growth  of  the  seed  into  the  plant,  are  shown  to 
be  the  expenditure  of  Energy  from  the  Ether,  stored 
up  in  the  plant  and  seed  until  needed  by  the  plant's 
new  growth. 

The  higher  development  of  life  in  ANIMALS  has 
been  but  lightly  touched  upon  ;  changes  produced  by 
incubation  in  an  egg,  and  a  few  remarks  on  Embry- 
ology, being  all  that  was  thought  desirable  to  give. 
Throughout  all  the  phenomena  described,  the  Energy 
carried  by  the  Ether  is  believed  to  be  the  direct  acting 
power. 

A  slight  sketch  is  given  of  the  men  who  preceded 
Darwin  *  that  held  ideas  concerning  the  Evolution 
of  Life.  The  manifestation  of  intellect  is  next  con- 
sidered, and  the  change  in  the  line  of  evolution  that 

(xxv) 


INTRODUCTION 

ceasing  to  modify  the  body  expended  itself  on  the 
growth  of  the  brain  that  was  needed  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  higher  energies  brought  by  the  Ether, 
producing,  finally,  rational  Man.  The  traces  of  his 
once  arboreal  life  are  yet  borne  by  him,  and  from 
time  to  time  reappear,  through  atavism,  evidences  of 
his  once  savage  and  even  brutal  nature.  If  men 
were  early  taught  to  recognize  these  traits  for  what 
they  are,  and  seek  to  conquer  and  remove  them,  many 
a  worthless  life  might  become  a  worthy  one. 

The  narrative  given  of  the  Evolution  of  Knowledge 
has  been  thus  far  absolutely  from  the  point  of  view 
of  strictly  scientific  observation  and  empiricism ; 
phenomena  have  been  considered  as  manifestations  of 
force  and  energy  in  various  forms,  and  under  laws  or 
conditions  of  exact  and  constant  uniformity,  open  to 
investigation  and  to  more  or  less  perfect  understand- 
ing. It  is  the  only  way  that  the  Path  of  Evolution 
should  be  or  can  be  studied. 

Yet  in  all  directions  that  we  seek  to  pass  we  meet 
with  the  evidences  of  the  existence  of  a  wise,  intelli- 
gent, all-sustaining  VOLITION,  in  whom  all  things 
begin  and  end,  who  is  the  source  of  life  and  the  giver 
of  all  good ! 

The  Philosophy  of  Evolution  teaches  a  "different 
Teleology  from  that  of  the  metaphysician  or  theo- 
logian. It  shows  that  the  arrangements  for  life  and 

(xxvi) 


INTR  OD  UCTION 

happiness  for  the  good  of  all,  are  unchangeable.  The 
laws  instituted  must  be  learned  and  obeyed.  The 
actions  thereof  are  invariable,  not  varying  capri- 
ciously nor  changed  from  any  cause.  It  is  for  us  to 
learn  them  and  obey  them,  for  ignorance  or  good  in- 
tention will  not  excuse,  nor  save  from  the  consequences 
of  their  violation.  The  laws  that  govern  mental  and 
moral  action  are  like  the  physical  laws — to  be 
learned  and  to  be  obeyed. 

The  question,  "Is  Life  Worth  Living?"  for 
animals  or  man,  is  answered  by  a  rapid  glance  at  the 
life  of  each,  beginning  with  the  undoubted  joy  of 
living  by  the  young  of  all  animals,  giving  place  as 
they  grow  older  to  the  duties  of  providing  for  them- 
selves and  for  their  young,  and  to  the  parent's  care 
and  love  for  its  offspring.  In  man  the  youthful  days 
are  much  the  same — the  animal  pleasure  in  merely 
living  !  As  childhood  passes  with  the  youth  away, 
the  duties  of  life  begin,  and  with  the  duties  come 
the  pleasures,  too — if  pleasnre-seeking  be  not  the  only 
goal. 

The  traits  of  similarity  and  of  difference  in  the 
young  girl's  character  from  that  of  the  boy's  are  no- 
ticed, and  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  woman's 
psychical  nature  fitting  her  for  life's  duties  are  de- 
scribed. The  mutual  attraction  the  opposite  sexes 
have  for  each  other  plays  an  important  role  in  the 

(xxvii) 


INTRODUCTION 

life  of  each,  causing  the  romance  of  love  and  most  of 
the  Poetry  of  Life. 

The  problems  offered  by  the  existence  of  Sin  and 
Death  find  a  better  solution  in  the  doctrine  of  Evolu- 
tion than  can  probably  elsewhere  be  given.  Death 
is  unquestionably  an  integral  and  essential  part  of 
the  plan  of  existence.  The  former  finds  a  partial 
solution  in  atavism,  and  it  is  trusted  will  find  a  com- 
plete one  in  the  ultimate  results  of  further  and  per- 
fected evolution. 

The  course  of  life  is  not  intended  to  be  free  from 
troubles.  The  full  development  of  the  physical 
frame  is  in  consequence  of  the  exercise  of  its  muscles 
and  faculties ;  unless  the  organs  are  brought  into  use 
they  will  not  strengthen,  and  if  quite  disused  will  be 
atrophied  or  die.  So  it  is  with  the  'mental  and  moral 
faculties.  The  greater  the  intelligence,  and  the 
greater  its  capacity  for  advancement  and  improve- 
ment, so  much  the  greater  is  its  need  of  a  higher 
stimulus  for  the  onward  course.  The  lessons  of  life 
are  to  be  learned  more  by  practice  than  by  precept. 

The  Philosophy  of  Evolution  can  teach  nothing 
positive  concerning  a  future  life  more  than  other 
philosophies  can  teach.  To  discuss  it  even  lies  out- 
side of  its  province.  Nevertheless,  this  may  be  said, 
The  Path  of  Evolution  clearly  shows  that  the  course 
of  all  life  here  is  an  advance  from  a  lower  state  of 

(xxviii) 


INTR  OD  UCTJON' 

development  or  of  existence  towards  a  nearer  perfect 
development  and  a  higher  existence.  If  our  lives 
are  so  passed  here  that  the  personality  acquired  is 
worthy  of  a  nobler  and  a  wider  field,  it  would  seem 
but  natural  "  when  the  spirit  shall  return  unto  God 
who  gave  it "  that  its  evolution  shall  continue  into  a 
higher  life,  for  the  doctrine  of  Evolution  that  Science 
teaches  is  that  the  Intelligence  and  the  Will  was  not 
the  Brain  that  died,  but  that  the  brain  was  only  the 
workroom  and  the  dwelling-place  of  part  of  that  In- 
telligence and  Will  that  NEVER  dies. 

(xxix) 


THE   PATH   OF  EVOLUTION 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  DOWNFALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  IN  THE 
WEST  AND  THE  EXTINCTION  OF  LEARNING — 
THE  OPENING  OF  THE  SCHOOLS  BY  CHARLE- 
MAGNE— THE  ARABIAN  AND  THE  JEWISH  PHIL- 
OSOPHY. 

"  The  tower  that  had  long  stood 
The  crush  of  thunder  and  the  warring  winds, 
Shook  by  the  slow  but  sure  destroyer  Time, 
Now  hangs  in  doubtful  ruins  o'er  its  base, 
And  flinty  paramids  and  walls  of  brass 
Descend.    The  Babylonian  spires  are  sunk  ; 
Achaia,  Rome  and  Egypt  moulder  down. 
Time  shakes  the  stable  tyranny  of  thrones, 
And  tottering  empires  rush  by  their  own  weight."  * 

THE  empire  of  Rome,  with  its  civilization  and  its 
learning,  was  far  advanced  on  the  downward  path  to 
its  ultimate  ruin  when,  in  325,  Constantine  accepted 
Christianity  as  the  official  religion  of  the  State.  The 
city  of  Rome  had  ceased  in  Diocletian's  time  to  be 
nominally  the  seat  of  government.  In  330  Constan- 
tine established  the  Imperial  City  to  which  he  gave 

*  John  Armstrong.    170*8-1778. 

I 


PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 


his  name,  and  to  which  he  transferred  much  of  the 
riches  of  Rome  and  many  of  its  most  prominent 
citizens.  Rome  was  no  longer  the  literary  centre. 
Most  of  the  Latin  authors  of  this  and  of  the  next 
century  were  Gauls  by  birth  and  habitation.  The 
Greek  language,  which  had  been  read  and  spoken  in 
Rome  for  several  centuries  by  all  persons  of  culture, 
began  to  pass  into  disuse  in  the  western  branch  of 
the  empire.  In  Constantinople  it  continued  to  be 
the  language  of  literature,  though  the  transactions  of 
the  government  were  officially  in  Latin. 

Throughout  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  empire 
the  doctrines  of  the  various  sects  of  philosophy  had 
been  taught  in  the  schools  of  the  several  great  cities, 
especially  in  those  of  Athens  and  of  Alexandria.  The 
most  prominent  among  the  philosophies  were  those  of 
Plato,  of  Aristotle,  of  Epicurus,  and  of  the  Stoics;  the 
first  especially,  whose  teachings  preceded  those  of  the 
founder  of  Christianity  by  over  three  hundred  and 
seventy  years,  had  exerted  and  continued  to  exert  a 
dominating  power  over  the  minds  of  learned  and  of 
thinking  men.  To  its  influence  and  to  that  of  the 
Stoics  was  probably  due  the  introduction  into  the 
Fourth  Gospel  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos.  The  writ- 
ings of  Philo  Juclseus  (born  about  20  B.  C.  and  died 
about  50  A.D.)  had  brought  the  Greek  philosophies — 
already  known  to  the  Hellenistic  Jews — more  vividly 


DOWNFALL    OF  ROME 

before  them.  The  Stoic  philosophy — a  materialistic, 
partly  pantheistic  view  of  nature — placed  the  ethical 
life  of  man  and  the  pursuit  of  virtue  upon  an  emi- 
nence to  which  no  other  pagan  philosophy  had  ever 
attained.  In  Rome  it  dominated  the  life  and  writ- 
ings of  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus. 
Soon  after  his  death  it  became  absorbed  into  neo- 
platonism  and  lost  its  separate  existence. 

The  Epicureans,  followers  of  Democritus  and  of 
Epicurus,  taught  that  all  nature  was  the  blind  result 
of  chance,  the  haphazard,  fortuitous  impact  of  the 
atoms,  without  any  governing  cause,  either  efficient 
or  final.  Being  thus  atheistic,  the  philosophy  had 
little  or  no  influence  upon  earlier  or  later  religions. 
Yet  its  atomic  theory  of  the  physics  of  space  is  other- 
wise a  marvellous  anticipation  of  the  thought  and 
science  of  modern  times. 

The  doctrines  thus  taught  by  the  various  philoso- 
phies were  also  practically  the  religions  of  their 
adherents,  except  among  the  Jews  and  the  early  Chris- 
tians. Some  of  the  former  added,  as  Philo  did,  the 
Platonic  and  Stoic  philosophies  to  the  teachings  of  the 
Mosaic  Scriptures ;  the  latter — the  Christians — either 
rejected  the  philosophical  religion  of  their  teachings 
absolutely  as  of  no  value,  or  accepted  them  in  part 
only  and  assimilated  them  into  the  Christian  dogmas, 
giving  birth  to  the  Gnostic,  Docetic  and  countless 

3 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

other  heresies  that  for  centuries  distracted  and  divided 
the  Christian  church.  It  was  not  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  ninth  century  that  the  church  began  to 
teach  in  its  schools  the  principles  of  philosophy  apart 
from,  but  by  the  side  of,  its  theological  learning. 

The  repeated  invasions  of  the  barbarians  had,  by 
the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  destroyed  the  Roman 
Empire.  Rome  itself,  conquered  and  sacked,  over 
and  over  again  ;  the  country  around  it — the  campagna 
— grown  pestilential  and  uninhabitable  from  the  fill- 
ing up  of  its  drains  and  watercourses,  seemed  to 
await  the  fate  of  Babylon  or  Carthage,  so  that  even 
its  ruins  might  have  perished  and  its  site  been  lost. 
The  conquests  of  Theodoric  the  Great,  King  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  known  in  the  Teutonic  legends  as  the 
half-mythical  "Dietrich  of  Berne,"  gave  for  a  time 
the  promise  of  better  days.  Under  him  Italy  again 
became  prosperous.  The  arts  revived,  the  advance 
of  the  semi-savage  Franks  under  Clovis  was  checked, 
and  peace  and  civilization  seemed  again  established. 
But  his  successors  did  not  possess  his  abilities;  they 
could  not  defend  what  he  had  conquered !  After 
sixty  years  their  kingdom  fell ;  the  invasion  of  the 
Lombards  completed  the  conquest  of  Italy,  and  the 
night  of  the  Dark  Ages  shut  down  on  Europe.  For 
six  hundred  years  all  learning  ceased,  and  much  that 
had  existed  was  forever  lost. 

4 


EXTINCTION  OF  LEARNING 

In  590  Gregory  the  First  had  been  elected  Pope. 
This  man,  born  of  a  patrician  family  and  of  high 
natural  abilities,  succeeded  in  keeping  the  Lombards 
away  from  Rome  itself.  Sismondi  says:  "It  is  diffi- 
cult to  understand  why  Rome  was  not  taken  by  the 
Lombards  when  Alboin  made  the  conquest  of  the 
rest  of  Italy."  * 

Gregory's  energies  were  devoted  solely  to  the  pro- 
gress and  advancement  of  his  church.  Besides  es- 
tablishing the  Orthodox  faith  in  Great  Britain,  he 
succeeded  in  converting  to  its  doctrine  many  of  the 
Arians  (Unitarians)  of  Italy  and  Spain,  who,  in  com- 
mon with  the  Gauls,  the  Ostro-  and  the  Visi-goths, 
and  all  the  northern  barbaric  nations — except  the 
savage  and  orthodox  Franks — had  for  centuries  ad- 
hered to  that  heresy. 

The  writings  of  Gregory  show  that  he  held  in 
horror  and  aversion  the  classic  literature  of  the  -past. 
The  evidence  that  he  instigated  the  destruction  of  the 
monuments  and  temples  of  antiquity  is  very  doubt- 
ful. Equally  without  proof  is  the  common  belief  that 
he  ordered  the  burning  of  the  Palatine  Library ;  but 
the  fact  of  his  contempt  for  learning  is  unfortunately 
too  well  established. 

"Erudition  consisted  then,  as  it  did  for  centuries 
after,  only  in  the  recognition  of  the  dogmas  that  a 

*Histoire  des  Republic  Italians,  T.  1.,  p.  100. 
5 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

Christian  should  accept,  and  of  the  heresies  which  he 
should  flee  from.  Having  heard  that  Didier,  Arch- 
bishop of  Yienne  (formerly  one  of  the  most  literary- 
towns  of  Gaul)  had  undertaken  to  reopen  the  schools — 
he  himself  giving  lessons  in  grammar — Gregory  wrote 
to  him:  "My  brother,  they  write  me  what  I  cannot 
repeat  without  shame — that  you  have  thought  it  right 
to  teach  grammar  to  certain  persons!  Learn,  then, 
how  serious,  how  frightful  it  is  that  a  bishop  should 
treat  concerning  things  that  even  a  Layman  ought  to 
be  ignorant  of!  If  it  can  be  shown  to  me  that  the 
report  is  false,  and  that  you  have  not  been  occupied 
with  such  frivolities,  with  secular  literature,  I  will  re- 
turn thanks  to  God  that  He  has  not  let  your  heart  be 
soiled  by  the  impure  felicitations  of  the  perverse."  * 
Such  language  indicates  the  temper  of  the  time! 

The  heresy  of  the  Montanists,  aided  by  the  poverty 
and  desolation  of  the  land,  drove  thousands  into  the 
desert  and  wild  places  to  lead 'a  life  of  asceticism, 
fanaticism  and  idle  introspection,  following  therein 
the  doctrines  of  the  Essenes  and  the  Therapeutse 
rather  than  the  Christian  teachings.  Other  countless 
thousands  gathered  into  little  knots  and  founded 
monasteries  throughout  the  eastern  and  western  em- 
pires, even  in  Rome  itself.  The  inmates  thereof 
practiced  the  self-denial  and  asceticism  that  they  pro- 

*Haureau:   Philosophie  Scholastique. 
6 


EXTINCTION  OF  LEARNING 

fessed;  they  confined  themselves  to  the  clothing 
absolutely  necessary,  and  to  a  diet  of  the  simplest  and 
poorest  kind,  barely  sufficient  to  nourish  life.  This 
regimen  was  well  fitted  to  stimulate  their  visionary 
fancies,  while  it  reduced  their  minds  and  bodies  to  a 
condition  that  was  under  their  better  self-control. 
Their  daily  labor  in  cultivating  the  land,  or  in  servile 
work,  provided  them  with  food,  and  other  wants  they 
had  none. 

The  practice  of  an  ascetic  life  has  in  all  countries, 
Pagan  and  Christian,  generally  been  considered  the 
evidence  of  superior  virtue,  and  has  conferred  sanc- 
tity upon  its  votaries.  Upon  this  account  as  time 
passed  on  and  the  monasteries  increased,  they  re- 
ceived many  donations  from  those  entering  their  orders, 
and  rich  bequests  from  those  who  had  died  in  the 
faith.  The  orders  having  perpetual  succession  seldom 
lost  that  which  they  had  once  received.  They 
rapidly  increased  in  wealth,  so  that  their  inmates 
were  relieved  from  the  necessity  of  menial  work. 
With  their  increasing  wealth  the  natural  consequences 
followed.  Their  humility  and  asceticism  were  re- 
placed by  pride,  arrogance  and  luxurious  living.  The 
other  and  worse  scandals  of  later  monastic  life  need 
not  be  dwelt  on  here. 

The  ample  leisure  thus  afforded  in  their  secluded 
lives  might  have  properly  been  devoted  to  study; 

7 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

but  the  illiterate  masses  who  filled  the  cells  were 
without  education.  Their  time  was  largely  taken 
up  with  the  exercises  of  devotion;  the  few  who 
could  read  and  write  were  occupied  in  recording  the 
visions,  miracles  and  the  partially  fabulous  lives  of 
their  fellow-devotees,  who,  after  death,  were  often  can- 
onized, and  entered  into  the  hagiography  of  the  saints. 
A  few — the  very  few  of  them — preserved  copies  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  classics.  In  the  western  em- 
pire the  knowledge  of  Greek  practically  died  out. 
Latin  was  preserved  in  a  more  or  less  imperfect  form 
by  the  necessity  of  employing  in  the  church  services  a 
language  that  might  be  equally  sacred  and  at  least  par- 
tially intelligible  to  the  Lombard,  the  Gaul,  the  Bur- 
gundian  and  the  Frank.  The  popular  or  vulgar  dia- 
lects of  each  nation  were  alike  unintelligible  to  the 
others,  especially  in  France.  As  the  years  succeeded 
each  other,  the  Latin  became  more  and  more  corrupt; 
and  as  the  times  of  the  grammarians  became  more 
remote,  the  last  remembrances  of  learning  seemed  to 
die  out.  A  few  monks  might  be  found  in  the  depths 
of  some  of  the  monasteries  who  had  received  and 
preserved  in  secret  some  slight  notion  of  literature; 
but  the  intellectual  state  of  the  multitude  both  of  the 
clergy  and  the  monks  was  that  of  thoughtless,  care- 
less ignorance.* 

*  Historic  de  la  Philosophie  Scolastique,  par  B.  Haureau,  Membre 
de  L'Institute.     Paris,  1872-1880,  en  Trois  Tomes,  T.  1.,  p.  5. 

8 


EXTINCTION  OF  LEARNING 

The  decadence  of  morals  had  followed  the  neglect 
of  study.  Idleness  had  served  to  nourish  vice.  The 
people  that  had  once  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
world  had  slowly  degenerated,  so  that  they  seemed  to 
have  lost  the  instincts  of  morality.  In  Italy,  as  well 
as  in  Spain  and  Great  Britain,  a  little  more  learning 
was  preserved  than  in  France.  There  were  a  few 
schools  in  which  the  masters  read  the  classics.  Char- 
lemagne had, visited  these,  and  he  determined  upon 
the  restoration  of  the  schools  throughout  his  realm.* 
In  788  he  wrote  to  the  bishops  and  abbes  a  circular 
letter  stating :  "  We  consider  it  useful  that  in  the 
monasteries  and  dioceses  committed  by  the  favor  of 
Christ  to  our  administration  there  should  be  added 
the  study  of  letters,  to  the  scrupulous  observance  of 
the  regular  life  and  the  practice  of  the  holy  religion ; 
for,  if  it  pleases  God  that  we  should  live  rightly,  we 
must  not  neglect  to  please  Him  also  by  speaking 
rightly."  Thus  began  the  first  efforts  towards  the 
revival  of  learning  in  Europe. 

Sismondi,t  describing  the  mode  of  life  of  the  Ital- 
ian "Seigneur"  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries,  states 
that  they  lived  shut  up  and  apart  in  their  castles, 
surrounded  by  their  peasantry  only.  They  felt  no 

*  In  800  he  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the  people  and  magnates 
of  Rome,  thus  re-establishing  the  empires  of  the  West,  consisting  of 
the  whole  of  Germany,  France  and  Italy. 

f  Sismondi :  Republique  Italiens.    T.  I,  p.  33. 

9 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

need  of  cultivating  their  minds  to  shine  in  society, 
for  society  they  had  none ;  nor  of  living  in  splendor, 
to  impose  only  on  their  inferiors.  Their  pleasures 
and  their  luxuries  were  arms  and  the  chase.  The 
education  of  a  gentleman  consisted  in  being  taught 
how  to  manage  a  fiery  steed ;  to  handle  with  skill  a 
heavy  lance  or  shield,  and  to  bear  without  fatigue  the 
weighty  cuirasse ;  but  it  did  not  require  that  he  should 
speak  with  elegance  or  write  correctly.  The  vulgar 
language  had  become  something  very  different  from 
Latin ;  yet  the  latter  was  the  only  language  that 
could  be  written.  A  vast  number  of  contracts  made 
by  gentlemen^  have  been  preserved,  drawn  up  by  the 
scriveners  in  such  barbarous  Latin  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  recognize  it  as  such.  The  buyer,  the 
seller,  the  witnesses  were  generally  all  gentlemen, 
but,  not  knowing  how  to  write,  made  crosses  for  their 
signatures,  which  were  attested  as  such  by  the  scrive- 
ner. 

Haureau  states  :  "  In  France  the  laity  had  at  first 
only  a  repugnance  for  study,  but  afterwards  a  con- 
tempt for  it.  They  were  then  led  by  their  vanity  to 
refuse  even  to  learn  to  read.  To  teach  them  the  his- 
tory of  their  religion  it  was  necessary  to  cover  the 
walls  of  the  churches  with  paintings.  This  became 
their  only  literature." 

As  the  schools  were  opened,  however,  in  many  towns, 
10 


EXTINCTION  OF  LEARNING 

crowds  of  the  young  ecclesiastics  thronged  to  them 
eager  to  learn,  so  that  the  schools  in  such  communi- 
ties became  flourishing.  In  other  places  illiterate 
and  indolent  bishops  violently  opposed  them;  de- 
clared themselves  the  enemies  of  all  learning,  saying 
that  it  was  a  sin  even  to  read  the  Scriptures ;  they 
scorned  as  meddling  mischief-makers  those  who  spent 
their  time  meditating  over  the  law  of  God.  They 
were  not  enough  in  numbers,  however,  to  stop  the 
progress  of  the  schools.  In  vain  they  groaned,  de- 
claimed and  threatened.  The  people  in  every  town 
solicited  a  school ;  when  the  request  was  refused,  they 
complained  to  the  Bishop  of  bishops — the  Pope — 
Eugene  II.  (824-827),  who  ordered  that  in  all  the 
dioceses,  dependent  towns,  and  wherever  it  might  be 
needed,  masters  should  be  appointed  to  teach  belles- 
lettres  and  the  liberal  arts.  "  Thus  was  revoked  the 
labor  and  instructions  of  St.  Gregory,  and  the  door 
was  opened  in  the  church  for  teaching  to  the  youth 
among  the  Gauls  the  writings  of  the  ancient  philoso- 
phers, who  were  well  named  the  Patriarchs  of  the 
Heretics.  Then,  after  some  centuries  of  arduous 
work  by  the  poor  clerks  in  restoring  to  available 
shape  the  literature  of  the  past ;  after  the  schools  had 
grown  beyond  the  study  of  grammar  and  rhetoric 
into  the  higher  study  that  we  now  call  philosophy,  the 
church,  condemning  the  work  of  its  own  hands, 

ii 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

lighted  up  the  funeral  pyres  to  precipitate  therein 
both  masters  and  pupils."  * 

THE   ARABIAN   PHILOSOPHY. 

While  Europe,  from  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century  until  nearly  the  middle  of  the  ninth,  sank 
deeper  and  deeper  in  the  mire  of  ignorance  and  dark- 
ness, a  new  power  arose  in  Arabia,  that  for  two  or 
three  generations  seemed  as  if  it  could  only  serve  to 
increase  the  gloom.  In  the  year  571  Mohammed 
was  born  in  Mecca.  He  died  in  632,  after  having 
established  by  the  sword  his  dominion  and  his  faith 
over  the  people  of  his  own  land,  and  attacked,  at  first 
unsuccessfully,  the  Byzantine  Empire.  His  death 
occurred  when  lie  was  preparing  to  renew  the  attack. 
This  war  his  successors  carried  on  against  the  Greeks 
and  against  all  the  border  lands  of  Arabia,  driving 
back  upon  themselves  alike  Pagans,  Jews  and 
Christians.  Many  of  the  believers  in  Islam,  the  Bed- 
ouins and  other  Nomads,  were  as  ignorant  and  wild 
as  the  northern  hordes  that  had  swept  over  and  pos- 
sessed the  Western  Empire.  It  might,  therefore, 
with  reason  be  expected  that  the  new  faith  would 
destroy  with  its  advance  all  existing  knowledge  in 
the  lands  it  conquered. 

With  Mohammedanism,  as  with  Christianity,  many 

*  Haureau  :  Philosophic  Scholastique.  T.  1,  p.  15. 

12 


THE   ARABIAN  PHILOSOPHY       • 

heresies  arose  before  the  end  of  its  first  century. 
Each  had  its  origin  in  the  same  cause :  some  inde- 
pendent spirits  attempted  to  explain  doubtful  or  ob- 
scure passages  in  their  several  Scriptures,  or  to  make 
clear  the  exact  significance  of  dogmas  derived  there- 
from. Thus  arose  various  schools  that  interpreted 
the  Koran  diversely.  The  advocates  of  the  several 
schisms  learned  to  clothe  their  arguments  in  dialectic 
forms  that  philosophy  furnished,  so  that  they  gradu- 
ally changed  from  being  schools  of  theology  only 
into  schools  of  philosophy. 

The  first  heresy  was  that  of  the  Kadrites,  who  held 
the  doctrine  of  Free  Will :  that  man  alone  deter- 
mined his  own  actions,  whether  good  or  evil.  To 
them  were  opposed  the  Djabarites,  or  absolute  Fatal- 
ists :  that  man  had  no  power  whatever  in  himself. 
This  doctrine  would  have  accorded  well  enough  with 
the  orthodox  belief  if  its  author,  in  his  desire  to  avoid 
attributing  to  God  the  qualities  of  the  creature,  had 
not  made  of  Him  an  abstract  being,  devoid  of  all 
attributes  and  action.  Against  both  of  these  arose 
the  Cifatites,  who,  taking  literally  the  words  of  the 
Koran  regarding  the  attributes  of  God,  fell  into  the 
grossest  anthropomorphism.  Finally  came  the  "  Mo- 
tazeles,"  or  "  Dissenters/'  who  avoided  the  extremes 
of  the  other  beliefs.  They  differed  in  their  own  sects 
on  minor  details,  but  agreed  in  not  recognizing  in 

13 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

God  attributes  distinct  from  his  essence;  and  thus 
avoided  everything  that  seemed  able  to  injure  the 
dogma  of  the  unity  of  God.  "They  accorded  to 
man  free  will  in  his  actions,  and  maintained  the 
justice  of  God,  in  that  man  chose  for  himself  good 
or  evil ;  therefore  the  merit,  or  demerit,  was  his  alone. 
They  said :  All  that  is  necessary  for  salvation  is 
within  the  province  of  reason,  and  could  have  been 
acquired  by  its  sole  light  before  the  existence  of  law 
or  before  revelation.  It  is  thus  an  obligation  upon 
man  so  to  acqure  it  in  all  times  and  all  places." 

"This  heresy,  in  opposing  orthodoxy  and  all  other 
heresies,  had  especial  need  of  dialectics,  and  its  advo- 
cates became  well  skilled  in  their  use.  It  is  probable 
that  the  contact  of  the  Arabs  with  the  Christians  of 
Syria  and  Chaldaea,  where  Greek  literature  was  culti- 
vated, had  introduced  the  language  of  philosophy,  as 
well  as  assisted  in  the  origin  of  the  schisms."  * 

With  the  downfall  of  the  Omayyad  dynasty  in  750 
began  the  reign  of  the  Abassides.  A  few  years  later 
Baghdad  was  founded,  the  capital  of  the  Empire  of 
the  Caliphs.  While  Western  Europe  was  in  the 
deepest  sleep  of  the  Dark  Ages,  Al  Massur,  the 
builder  of  Baghdad,  drew  around  him  men  learned  in 
the  knowledge  of  Greek  literature.  His  successors, 
particularly  Al  Mamoun,  made  noble  efforts  to  dis- 
seminate the  learning  of  ancient  times  among  the 
*  Solomon  Munk:  Philosophic  Juive  et  Arabe. 

'4 


THE  ARABIAN  PHILOSOPHY 

Moslems  through  the  translations  from  the  Syriac. 
In  this  manner  they  became  familiar  with  the  works 
of  Aristotle,  whose  empiric  teaching  accorded  much 
better  with  their  needs  than  the  idealism  of  Plato. 
They  valued,  at  first  especially,  the  practical  utility 
of  Aristotle's  works  on  medicine  (in  which  their  own 
knowledge  soon  far  exceeded  that  of  Europe),  on 
physics,  and  on  astronomy.  The  latter  two  were 
so  closely  allied  to  philosophy  that  they  soon  felt  its 
need,  especially  in  the  use  of  dialectics.  Thus,  while 
the  schools  opened  by  Charlemagne  in  his  empire 
were  struggling  over  the  primers  of  the  language,  or 
at  the  utmost  with  the  grammar  as  then  taught,  the 
schools  of  Baghdad  were  in  possession  and  in  familiar 
use  of  many  of  the  works  of  Aristotle  that  did  not 
reach  Europe  until  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Many  of  these  books,  as  well  as  numbers  of  other 
ancient  writings,  have  only  reached  us  through  their 
preservation  in  the  Arabic  version.  The  Arabic 
philosophy  was  thus  almost  exclusively  the  peripa- 
tetic, more  or  less  tinctured  by  neoplatonism.  Thus 
Avicenna  (Ibn-Sina,  b.  980)  sought  to  reconcile  the 
existence  of  the  Absolute — the  Unapproachable — with 
the  sublunary  world  by  establishing  a  chain  of  inter- 
mediate spheres  or  links  by  which  the  pure  energy 
was  communicated  to  all  the  varieties  of  matter.* 

*  S.  Munk:  Philosophic  Juive  et  Arabe.     P.  445. 
15 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

The  names  of  Al  Kendi,  Al  Farabi,  Avicenna, 
Avempace,  became  well  known  to  all  the  scholastics 
of  Europe,  while  Averrhoes  (Ibn  Koschd.,b.  1126) 
was  recognized  as  the  most  learned  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans, and  the  profoundest  of  all  commentators 
on  the  works  of  Aristotle.  His  medical  knowledge 
was  equally  valued.  As  happens  too  often  to  original 
thinkers,  he  suffered  much  from  the  Orthodox  be- 
lievers; the  Mussulman  authorities  accused  him  of 
holding  opinions  that  were  not  orthodox,  and  of 
preaching  philosophy  that  was  detrimental  to  Mo- 
hammedanism. He  was  insulted  in  Cordova,  his 
native  town,  and  obliged  to  live  in  the  suburbs.  Later 
in  life  he  was  taken  again  into  favor  by  the  Caliph 
Almansur  and  called  to  the  court  at  Morocco,  where 
he  soon  afterwards  died,  aged  seventy-two  years.  His 
philosophy,  like  that  of  Avicenna,  was  partly  neo- 
platonic.  He  believed  in  the  intermediate  spheres 
and  in  the  two  intellects — the  one  active,  the  other 
passive — the  hylic.  The  active  one  is  an  emanation  of 
the  Universal  Intellect;  the  passive,  of  the  recep- 
tive intellect.  By  the  conjunction  finally  of  the  two, 
all  that  is  personal  in  man,  the  receptive  as  well  as 
the  active  intellect,  will  efface  itself  by  uniting  with 
God,  the  only  veritable  Being  who  is  of  an  absolute 
unity.  Man  obtains  from  this  conjunction  of  intel- 
lects nothing  beyond  this  life.  The  general  ideas 

16 


THE  JEWISH  PHILOSOPHY 

which  emanate  from  the  universal  intelligence  are 
imperishable  for  all  humanity;  but  nothing  remains 
of  the  individual  receptive  intellect.*  These  ideas, 
which  contain  pantheistic  principles,  were  violently 
opposed  in  the  Latin  schools  by  Albertus  Magnus, 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  later  by  Duns  Scotus.  The 
later  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  was  a  battlefield 
in  which  the  doctrines  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  re- 
mained the  conquerors.  After  Averrhoes  no  other 
Arabian  philosophers  became  prominent  in  Europe. 

THE    JEWISH    PHILOSOPHY. 

The  learned  Orientalist,  Solomon  Munk  (1802- 
1857),  remarks:  "The  Jews,  either  as  a  nation  or  as 
a  religious  society,  played  only  a  secondary  part  in 
the  history  of  philosophy ;  it  was  not  their  mission. 
It  is  incontestable,  however,  that  they  shared  with 
the  Arabs  the  merits  of  having  preserved  and  propa- 
gated philosophical  science  during  the  ages  of  bar- 
barism, and  of  having,  for  a  certain  time,  exerted  a 
civilizing  influence  on  the  European  world."  f  "  To 
know  God  and  to  make  Him  known  to  the  world 
was  the  mission  given  to  the  Jewish  people ;  but  it 
was  by  the  inspiration  of  faith,  by  a  spontaneous 
revelation,  that  their  people  were  led  to  God.  It  was 

*  Solomon  Munk  :  Philosophie  Juive  et  Arabe.     P.  445. 
f  La  Philosophie  chez  lea  Juifs.     P.  511. 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

by  addressing  themselves  to  the  heart  of  man,  to  his 
sentiment  of  morality,  and  to  his  imagination,  that 
the  ancient  Hebrews  sought  to  cherish  and  to  propa- 
gate the  belief  in  the  one  Being — the  Creator  of  all 
things.  The  existence  of  God,  the  spirituality  of 
the  soul,  the  knowledge  of  good  and  evil,  were  not 
with  them  the  results  of  a  series  of  syllogisms ;  they 
believed  in  God,  the  Creator,  who  had  revealed  Him- 
self to  their  ancestors,  and  whose  existence  seemed  to 
be  above  the  reasoning  of  men  ;  their  moral  faculties 
flowed  naturally  to  the  conviction — to  the  inward 
sentiment — of  a  just  and  good  God."  * 

It  is  impossible,  nevertheless,  to  be  in  close  contact 
with  the  speculative  minds  of  others,  without  an  effect, 
greater  or  less,  on  one's  own  mind.  The  doctrines 
held  by  the  Alexandrine  Hebrews,  and  especially  the 
writings  of  Philo  Judseus,  show  how  strong  this  in- 
fluence has  been.  The  dialectics  of  Aristotle  were 
called  upon  to  defend  the  Montecallemin  doctrines  of 
the  Karaite  Hebrews  (borrowed  from  those  of  the 
Arabian  Montecallemin),  the  object  of  which  was  to 
establish  the  fundamentals  of  Judaism  upon  a  philo- 
sophical basis. 

The  principal  theses  defended  in  the  writings  of 
the  Montecallemiu  Karaites  were :  "  The  original 
matter  has  not  been  from  all  eternity ;  the  world  has 

*Ibid.    P.  461. 
18 


THE  JEWISH  PHILOSOPHY 

been  created,  and  therefore  has  a  Creator ;  this  Crea- 
tor, who  is  God,  has  not  either  beginning  or  end ;  he 
is  incorporeal,  and  is  not  enclosed  in  the  limits  of 
space.  His  science  embraces  all  things;  His  life  con- 
sists in  the  intelligence,  and  it  is  itself  pure  intelli- 
gence ;  He  acts  with  free  will,  and  His  volition  is 
conformable  to  His  omniscience." 

In  physics  the  Montecallemin  based  their  theory 
of  the  world  on  the  existence  of  the  atoms  of  Democ- 
ritus,  and  consequently  of  intervening  space,  but 
they  differed  from  Democritus,  and  from  the  Leib- 
nitz theory  of  Monads,  in  supposing  the  atoms  to  be 
constantly  created  anew  by  the  fiat  of  God,  and  ex- 
isting at  His  pleasure  only.  They  were  without  qual- 
ities and  without  extension ;  all  bodies  arise  and 
perish  by  their  aggregation  and  their  separation.  In 
this  may  be  seen  an  approximation  to  the  atomic 
theory  of  matter  at  the  present  day. 

One  of  the  earliest  Jewish  writers  of  the  Middle 
Ages  was  Solomon  Ibn  Gebriol,  the  author  of  the 
"  Source  of  Life/7  He  was  known  to  Europeans  by 
the  name  of  Avicebron,  but  generally  supposed  by 
them  at  the  time  to  be  an  Arabian.  His  philosoph- 
ical writings  were  in  Arabic,  though  his  poetic  works, 
mostly  hymns — highly  valued  by  the  Hebrews — 
were  in  their  language.  He  was  born  at  Malaga, 
Spain,  about  1025.  From  the  teachings  of  the 

19 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

"  Source  of  Life  "  in  its  Latin  version  the  scholastics 
drew  many  of  their  notions  of  matter  and  form  as 
taught  by  Aristotle,  and  modified  by  the  Platonic, 
and  Neo- Platonic  ideas  of  its  author.  Between  mat- 
ter ("  Hyle ")  and  the  form  he  placed  the  volition 
(La  Volonte)  which  served  as  the  intermediary  agent. 
We  find  here  the  thought  which  dominated  the  Jew- 
ish theologians :  that  the  Word  of  the  creation  indi- 
cated the  volition  of  God,  manifesting  itself  freely 
in  the  work  of  creation.  "  Dixitique  Deus ;  Fiat 
lux.  Et  facta  est  lux."  This  volition  of  the  Logos 
has  thus  been  made  into  the  first  hypostasis  of  the 
Divinity,  so  as  to  avoid  putting  the  First  Substance, 
the  Absolute — God — into  immediate  contact  with  the 
world.  In  fact  though,  volition  as  a  divine  attri- 
bute is  inseparable  from  the  Divinity,  it  is  itself  the 
divine  essence.  St.  Thomas  and  Albertus  Magnus 
considered  Avicebron  to  be  the  first  who  gave  matter 
as  an  attribute  of  the  soul.  This  doctrine,  the  ma- 
teriality of  the  soul,  has  been  regarded  as  being  to 
some  extent  the  principal  point  in  his  system  of  phil- 
osophy. His  doctrine  verged  closely  on  Pantheism, 
if  not  actually  identified  at  times  therewith. 

Among  all  the  Jewish  philosophers  none  were  so 
well  known  to  the  scholastics  of  the  twelfth  century, 
— or  even  to  those  of  later  times,  who  are  conversant 
with  the  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages — as  Maimon- 

20 


THE  JEWISH  PHILOSOPHY 

ides,  or  as  his  own  people  knew  him,  Moses  Ben 
Maimoun,  born  at  Cordova  1135;  d.  1204. 

To  the  deepest  knowledge  of  the  religious  litera- 
ture of  the  Jews  he  added  that  of  all  the  profane 
sciences  then  accessible  to  the  Arabian  world.  Be- 
sides his  other  numerous  works,  his  great  work, 
"The  Guide  to  the  Erring"  (Le  Guide  des  EgarSs), 
has  powerfully  contributed  to  spread  among  the  Jews 
the  study  of  the  peripatetic  philosophy.  This  work 
served  as  an  intermediary  between  the  Arabs  and 
Christian  Europe,  and  produced  an  incontestable  in- 
fluence on  the  scholastic  philosophy.  Its  influence 
is  felt  to-day  in  the  synagogue.  It  has  survived 
peripatetism,  but  by  its  teachings  the  great  geniuses 
of  the  modern  Hebrews — Spinosa,  Mendelssohn, 
Solomon  Maimoun  and  many  others  were  introduced 
to  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  His  views  upon  most 
questions  were  very  similar  to  those  of  Averrhoes,  and 
it  was  to  the  efforts  of  Maimonedes  that  the  Arabian 
philosophy  was  made  known  to  Christendom. 

Christian  scholasticism  considered  Maimonides  one 
of  the  greatest  thinkers  that  the  world  had  seen  for 
many  centuries.  Albertus  Magnus  and  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  were  his  disciples.  He  rejected  all  assimila- 
tion of  God  with  his  creatures.  "  One  could  say 
what  God  was  not,  but  could  not  say  what  he  was." 
He  placed  little  importance  upon  the  idea  of  a  Provi- 

21 


PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 


dence.  "  It  acts  only  through  the  intermediation  of 
the  reason.  It  does  not  trouble  itself  about  the  in- 
dividual. Its  thought  is  only  for  the  preservation  of 
the  genus  and  species."  He  admitted  the  doctrine  of 
Free  Will,  and  recognized  the  influence  of  acquired 
habits  and  desires,  which  it  was  important  should  be 
satisfied  in  a  suitable  and  proper  manner.  He  form- 
ally condemned  asceticism  and  a  contemplative  life  as 
hostile  to  the  development  of  the  human  race  and  to 
the  fulfillment  of  its  legitimate  needs.* 

*  Larousse.    T.  10,  p.  949. 
22 


CHAPTER  II 

FROM  THE   BIRTH  OF  THE  SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY 
TO   THE  DEATH  OF  ROGER  BACON. 

"  If  that  I  did  not  know  philosophy 
To  be  of  all  our  vanities  the  motliest — 
The  merest  word  that  ever  fool'd  the  ear 
From  out  the  Schoolman's  jargon — I  should  deem 
The  golden  secret,  the  sought  "  Kalon,"  found 
And  seated  in  my  soul."  * 

Aided  by  the  Arabian  and  Hebrew  learning,  thus 
gradually  came  into  being  the  system  known  as  the 
Scholastic  Philosophy :  for  many  centuries  the  only 
form  of  erudition  in  Christian  Europe.  The  sole 
mode  of  instruction  was  in  the  schools  in  which  the 
teaching,  by  the  "  Schoolmen,"  as  they  were  called, 
was  entirely  oral.  Few  or  no  books  were  accessible 
to  the  pupils,  and  for  a  long  time  few  or  none  of  them 
could  read,  The  clerks,  or  those  who  could  read  and 
write, — the  clericus — were  the  monks  and  ecclesiastics 
only.  For  many  years  the  instruction  was  confined 
to  the  "trivium"  of  the  liberal  arts,  grammar, 
rhetoric  and  logic.  It  was  necessary  before  all  that 

*  Byron's  Manfred.    Act  III.,  1. 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

men  should  know  the  use  of  words  before  they  could 
rise  to  the  advancement  of  thoughts.  The  classical 
writers  were  long  forbidden  to  be  read,  but  Gerbert 
about  980  explained  the  works  of  Virgil,  Horace, 
and  of  some  others,  to  his  pupils. 

The  study  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  of  which  a 
few  very  imperfect  copies  had  been  preserved  in  the 
various  monasteries,  furnished  a  system  of  dialectics 
and  the  proper  use  of  the  syllogism  that  has  practi- 
cally remained  without  improvement  almost  to  our 
day.  His  philosophy,  viewed  at  first  with  disap- 
proval, was  later  tolerated  by  the  church,  and  finally 
adopted  and  fiercely  defended  by  most  of  the  School- 
men in  their  disputes  with  the  idealistic  platonists. 
These  disputes  occupied  the  thoughts  and  the  time  of 
learned  men  until  the  downfall  of  scholasticism. 

Aristotle  possessed  one  of  the  greatest  intellects 
that  ever  existed.  A  genius  that  has  illuminated  the 
human  race;  he  seems  to  have  ignored  nothing  that 
it  was  possible  for  the  ancients  to  have  known,  and 
transmitted  to  us  all  the  science  of  his  epoque,  whether 
derived  from  his  predecessors,  his  contemporaries  or 
through  his  own  labors.  Unlike  his  preceptor,  Plato, 
he  attached  the  highest  importance  to  the  experience 
of  the  senses.  He  distinguished  with  perfect  clear- 
ness between  deductive  and  inductive  reasoning;  but, 
notwithstanding  his  preference  for  the  result  of  direct 

24 


SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY 

observation  rather  than  theories,  for  him,  as  for  Plato, 
the  science  par  excellence  was  that  of  the  first  prin- 
ciple— the  reason  of  things — and  the  syllogism  the 
proper  form  thereof.  Few,  if  any,  attempts  at  experi- 
mental investigation  are  disclosed  in  his  writings. 
In  his  day  such  attempts  were  thought  discreditable, 
and  indeed  were  so  considered  by  most  men  until  the 
dawn  of  the  practical  use  of  the  inductive  philosophy 
overthrew  that  of  the  peripatetic  teachings.  * 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  philosophies  of  the 
ancients  were  not  only  philosophies  but  the  religions 
of  their  advocates.  They  professed  not  only  to  teach 
the  causes  of  existence  and  the  nature  of  things,  but 
deduced  therefrom  the  principles  that  should  guide 
men  through  life;  that  should  influence  their  morality, 
and  show  them  the  hope,  or  the  futility  of  hoping,  for 
a  future  life.  Philosophy  in  entering  into  scholas- 
ticism divorced  itself  absolutely  from  this  religious 
element.  The  dogmas  of  Christianity  in  crystallizing 
ultimately  into  the  rigid  form  of  orthodox  Catholi- 
cism neither  required  nor  permitted  any  accessions 
from  philosophy,  ancient  or  modern.  The  dogmas 
of  the  church,  the  nature  of  God,  and  the  relations  to 
each  other  of  the  several  persons  of  the  trinity,  and 
of  God  to  man,  were  questions  strictly  reserved  to 
theology.  If  philosophers  touched  upon  them  other- 
wise than  as  the  church  prescribed,  they  became 

*  Larousse. 
25 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

heretical  and  were  punished  as  such.  Ethics  and 
morality  were  under  the  same  jurisdiction,  and  needed 
no  extraneous  advice.  The  metaphysics  of  Aristotle, 
and  later  of  Plato,  in  their  association  with  theology 
were  restricted  to  the  consideration  of  the  abstract 
nature  of  being :  that  all  substances  consisted  of  the 
Form — the  ideal  or  spiritual  existence — united  with 
a  gross,  inert  Matter,  in  itself  devoid  of  all  properties 
whatever.  The  doctrines  of  the  nature  of  the  Uni- 
versals;  the  question  whether  all  things  existed  in 
the  abstract  or  in  the  individual ;  whether  man,  for 
instance,  had  an  abstract  or  real  being,  not  merely  a 
verbal  one,  as  apart  from  any  individual  man,  was 
the  subject  matter  of  endless  argument  and  fierce  dis- 
pute, far  beyond  even  the  last  days  of  Scholasticism. 

According  to  Plato,  Socrates  says:  "He  is  the 
wisest  of  men  who,  like  Socrates,  knows  well  that  he 
is  in  truth  worthless,  so  far  as  wisdom  is  concerned. 
(Apology,  C.  9.)  The  really  disgraceful  ignorance  is 
to  think  that  you  know  what  you  really  do  not 
know."  (Apology,  C.  17.)  Modern  science  teaches 
us  the  same  lesson.  We  think  we  have  learned  much. 
We  have  gathered  many  facts  regarding  phenomena, 
but  the  more  learning  we  have  the  more  conscious 
we  become  that  of  absolute  knowledge  we  have  noth- 
ing ! 

It  is  only  when  we  attempt  to  define  accurately  the 


SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY 

ultimate  nature  of  anything  that  we  soon  arrive  at 
that  borderland  beyond  which  we  cannot  advance, 
even  in  thought.  If  we  attempt  to  frame  an  idea  in 
words  they  fail  us,  or  we  repeat  in  other  words  that 
which  was  said  at  first.  It  is  as  impossible  for  us  to 
conceive  that  space  is  limited  as  it  is  to  conceive  its 
negative — that  it  is  unlimited.  If  limited,  what  lies 
beyond?  If  unlimited,  how  can  it  extend  forever 
and  forever?  As  Herbert  Spencer  says:  "  We  find 
ourselves  totally  unable  to  form  any  mental  image  of 
unbounded  space,  and  yet  totally  unable  to  imagine 
bounds  beyond  which  there  is  no  space."  So  it  is 
with  time,  and  so  with  motion.  Apparently  clear 
and  evident  when  vaguely  considered,  they  melt  into 
the  incomprehensible  when  we  try  "to  understand 
their  essential  nature,  and  bring  us  to  alternate  im- 
possibilities of  thought."  So  it  is  with  matter.  From 
the  time  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  it  has  been  the  battle- 
field of  metaphysicians,  and  in  mediaeval  times  of 
the  scholastic  philosophers.  Plato  believed  in  the 
original  co-existence  of  the  two  principles — one,  the 
formless  Matter;  the  other  the  Form  or  the  Spirit, 
the  artisan  of  all  substance.  Matter  was  without 
form  and  void,  existing  only  in  potency,  "  for  in  the 
beginning,  before  the  generation  of  the  compound, 
matter  and  form  existed  only  in  their  causes,  for 
nothing  proceeds  from  nothing;"  but  it  was  matter 

27 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

which  furnished  the  subsistent  in  each  compound; 
but  form  gave  the  life  or  the  existent.  In  this  view 
"form  "  was  the  vis  creatrix,  being  the  IDEA,  without 
which  real  existence  was  not.  "  Before  the  thing  or 
substance  the  pure,  simple  idea  thereof  existed,  in 
which  idea  nothing  ever  alters,  nothing  ever  changes. 
The  substance  or  the  things  are,  however,  the  alliance 
of  matter  with  representative  forms,  which  are  to  the 
ideas  as  more  or  less  imperfect  copies  are  to  their 
models,  but  which  are  never  permanent  in  their  con- 
dition, since  they  belong  to  another  class  of  beings.* 
These  views  regarding  the  form  and  idea,  held  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously,  still  lie  at  the  basis  of  much 
of  the  metaphysical  thought  of  the  present  day. 

Among  the  Schoolmen  for  more  than  six  centuries 
the  main  subjects  that  occupied  their  minds  and  their 
pens  were  the  questions  that  grew  out  of  these  theo- 
ries. What  were  the  natures  and  the  relations  to  each 
other  of  the  Universals,  of  the  Genus,  of  the  Species  and 
of  the  Individuals  f  These  were  the  questions  pro- 
pounded in  the  third  century  by  Porphyry  in  his 
introduction  to  the  Categories  of  Aristotle,  and  trans- 
lated by  Boethius  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  cen- 

*  Avant  les  chosen  sent  les  idees,  pure,  simple  dont  rien  ne  s'altere, 
dont  rien  ne  se  change  jamais.  Dont  les  choses  sont  les  copies  plus 
ou  moins  imparfait  de  ces  idees,  qui  ne  demeurant  jamais  dans  le 
meme  etat,  appartiennent  a  une  autre  serie  d'etres. 

Philosophic  Scho.,  T.  1.,  P.  69.  Compare  also  Plato's  Phsedo,  Sec. 
62,  et  seq.  H.  Gary's  Trans. 

28 


SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY 

tury  for  the  Latin  world.  Until  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  even  later,  nearly  all  learned  men  worried  and 
fought  over  these  intangible  riddles. 

The  words  genus  and  species  were  collective  terms, 
embracing  all  things  of  a  like  nature.  Thus  the 
genus  "  Animal "  embraced  not  individual  animals, 
but  all  animals.  The  species,  man,  horse,  meant  not 
an  individual  man  or  horse,  but  all  men,  all 
horses,  etc.  . 

Plato  and  Aristotle  differed  in  their  ultimate  ideas 
even  more,  than  in  their  mode  of  expression.  Plato 
held  that  the  Universals,  the  Genus  and  the  Species 
existed  ideally,  but  nevertheless  in  reality,  necessarily 
before  the  substances,  as  principles  of  their  genera- 
tion, and  enjoyed  as  such  a  proper  and  permanent 
existence,  whilst  the  individual  (thing  or  substance) 
submitted  to  the  law  of  movement,  or  change,  and 
had  nothing  actual,  fixed,  or  stable  in  itself;  it  was 
only  a  mere  appearance  of  its  being. 

Aristotle,  on  the  contrary,  not  holding  existing 
things  in  the  contempt  that  Plato  did,  makes  with 
regard  to  the  Genus,  the  Species  and  the  Universals, 
properly  so  called,  the  following  explicit  declaration  : 
"  The  man,  the  horse,  all  the  Universals  reside  in  the 
individual.  The  substance  is  not  some  thing  or  a 
part  of  the  universal :  it  is  a  totality — a  compound 
of  such  form  and  of  such  matter.  No  universal  has 

29 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

an  existence  isolated  from  the  individual  being; 
nothing  of  that  which  applies  to  all  beings  (or  gen- 
eralities) is  substance,  and  there  is  no  substance  com- 
posed of  substance.*  The  undefined  is  an  existence  in 
potency,  and  not  in  act.  The  definition  is  the  expres- 
sion of  the  essence,  and  the  essence  is  only  found  in  the 
substance  ;  at  least,  it  is  found  above  all,  first  of  all; 
in  fine,  absolutely,  in  the  substance."  f 

Plato  placed  the  Universal  in  an  ideal  region  of 
its  own,  and  professed  that  from  this  superior  region, 
anterior  to  phenomenal  nature,  the  principles  were 
communicated  to  things  (substances)  that  determined 
their  manner  of  being.  Aristotle  also  recognized  that 
the  individual  thing  could  only  be  defined  or  named 

*  "  L'  homme,  1'cheval,  tous  les  Universaux  resident  dans  les  indi- 
vidus,  la  substance  n'est  pas  quelquechose  d'universel:  c'est  un  en- 
semble, un  compose  de  telle  forme  et  de  telle  matiere  (a)  Rien 
d'universal  n'  a  une  existence  isolee  des  etres  particuliers  Rien  de 
qui  s'applique  a  tous  les  etres  n'est  substance,  et  il  n,  ya  aucune  sub- 
stance composes  de  substance."  (b)  The  latter  clause  in  the  sentence 
is  to  disavow  the  notion  that  matter  as  an  universal  was  composed 
of  an  assembly  of  all  individual  subsistents. 

Idem.  P.  81.     (a)  Metaphysics  VII.,  10.     (Aristotle.) 

(b)  VII-16,  Trad,  de  MM.  Pierron  et  Zevort. 

f  Aristotle  had  previously  established  that  Matter  (distinguished 
from  such  or  such  matter)  was  an  universal,  and  adds  that,  being  an 
universal,  Matter  was  not  a  substance.  He  had  thus  expressed  him- 
self: "  L'indertimine,  c'est  Fetre  en  puissance  et  non  en  act.  II  eat 
evident  que  la  definition  est  Fexpression  de  Fessence,  et  que  Fessence 
ne  se  trouve  que  dans  les  substances,  ou  du  moins  qu'  elle  se  trouve 
surtout,  et  avant  tout,  absolutement  enfin  dans  les  substance. 

(a)  Philo.  Scholas.     T.  1,  P.  82.     Aristotle  Metaphysics  VII.,  4. 

(ft)  Ibid.,  IV.  4. 

30 


SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY 

through  the  universal ;  but  when  he  sought  beyond 
the  individual  for  the  universal,  which  is  the  foun- 
dation of  all  definition,  he  could  find  it  nowhere  but  in 
the  human  understanding." 

Upon  these  distinctions  arose  the  conflicting  doc- 
trines of  the  Realists  and  of  the  Nominalists.  The  one 
holding  that  the  quiddity  or  the  abstract  nature  of 
the  substance  existed  really  only  in  the  Form ;  i.e.,  in 
the  idea  or  thought  of  the  Creative  Spirit.  The  other, 
that  the  substances — i.  e.,the  combination  of  the  form 
with  matter — was  the  only  quiddity ;  the  individual 
thing  was  the  only  reality,  all  else  existing  only 
potentially.  These  different  views  have  descended  to 
our  times,  and  have  given  rise  to  endless  discussion 
among  metaphysicians. 

The  philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  learning, 
thought  and  writings  of  Gerbert,  of  John  Scott  Eri- 
gena,  of  Roscelin,  of  Abelard,  of  Duns  Scotus,  and 
largely  even  of  Albertus  Magnus,  were  little  else  than 
the  discussions  from  varied  points  of  view  of  these 
theories  and  of  the  nature  of  the  Universal  in  regard 
to  the  three  questions  of  Porphyry. 

Albertus  Magnus  states  that  the  nature  of  the  Uni- 
versals  might  be  considered  in  three  ways :  First, 
"Universale  ante  rem"  is  single  and  unchangeable, 
the  nature,  which  was  the  name  and  cause  of  exis- 
tence ;  second,  "  Universale  post  rem,"  as  existing  in 

3* 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

the  human  intellect ;  third,  "  Universale  in  re,"  hav- 
ing this  or  that  as  its  subject ;  in  other  words,  the 
substance.*  Having  thus  defined  what  the  substance 
was  in  reality,  they  left  it  without  further  study. 
Such  postulates  constituted  the  "physics"  of  the 
Scholastics,  but  to  us  are  metaphysics  only. 

The  downfall  of  Scholasticism  came  with  the  intro- 
duction of  printing ;  but  many  of  the  doctrines  of  its 
philosophy  long  survived  it.  To  study  the  nature 
of  material  things  by  actual  handling  and  experi- 
mental investigation  was  considered  unworthy  and 

*  II  y  a  trois  maniere  de  considerer  1'universel :  (premierement  il 
est  pris  en  lui-meme  c'est-a-dire  corame  etant  cette  nature  simple 
et  invariable  qui  donne  la  raison  et  le  nom  de  1'etre :  (Universal 
ante  rem) ;  Secondment,  comme  etant  dans  1'intellect:  (Universale 
post  rem :)  troisiement  comme  ayant  pour  sujet,  ceci  ou  cela  (Uni- 
yersale  in  re.)  Histoire  de  la  philo.;  Scholas.,  T.  2,  P.  232. 

Haureau  states:  "The  ancients  recognized  three  kinds  of  forms: 
1st,  the  forms  which  are  before  the  things,  and  which  are  the  models 
of  all  existing  things;  2d,  the  forms  which  are  in  the  things,  and 
which  communicate  to  them  that  which  is  their  manner  of  being — 
'  universelles '  in  the  sense  that  they  belong  to  many ; '  individuelles ' 
in  the  sense  that  they  particularize  themselves  in  the  bosom  of 
things  of  limited  number;  3d,  the  forms  that  are  after  things:  that 
is,  the" forms  which  transmitted  to  human  intelligence  by  the  divine, 
or  which  recurred  without  the  concurrence  of  the  divine,  hold  their 
universality  from  one  or  by  the  other. 

The  first  of  these  forms  are  the  principles  of  things.  The  second 
are  the  essences  of  things.  The  third  are  the  marks  of  things.  Ibid, 
T.  2,  P.  233. 

Albertus,f  though  an  Aristotelian,  was  eclectic  in  his  treatment 
of  the  realistic  and  nominalistic  views.  The  reader  is  referred  to  an 
exhaustive  discussion  thereon.  See  Albert  Le  Grand,  T.  2,  P.  215- 
307.  Haureau,  Scho.  Philo. 

f  De  proedicabilibus.    Tract  11,  c.  Ill 

32 


ROGER  BACON 

degrading.  The  conviction  that  whatever  was  existed 
in  its  essence  in  the  mind  had  the  corresponding 
belief  that  what  existed  in  thought  must  have  reality; 
and  an  a-priori  conviction,  therefore,  had  a  better 
foundation  than  an  empirical  demonstration  ;  for  the 
former,  if  logically  deduced  from  accepted  premises, 
must  be-correct ;  whilst  appearances  were  deceitful  and 
experience  known  to  be  full  of  error. 

It  was  not  until  the  advanced  days  of  Scholasti- 
cism that  a  Franciscan  monk,  ROGER  BACON,  aston- 
ished, and  for  the  most  part  disgusted,  the  learned 
world  by  his  heterodox  teaching,  that  any  effort  really 
to  advance  scientific  knowledge  was  made  in  the 
schools.  "About  1248,  Bacon,  having  left  Oxford, 
came  to  Paris  to  finish  his  studies  and  to  be  exam- 
ined for  his  doctorate.  The  University  of  Paris 
then  had  a  crowd  of  highly  applauded  masters,  well 
worthy  of  their  great  renown,  but  Bacon  was  not  sat- 
isfied with  any  of  them.  They  did  not  know,  he 
said,  the  elements,  nor  even  the  object,  of  true  science. 
These  false  savants  were  skillful  in  composing  and 
distributing  a  lot  of  chimerical  beings,  but  had  never 
taken  care  to  observe  any  real  being.  They  made  a 
profession  of  teaching  physics,  but  one  and  the  other, 
whatever  might  be  their  sect,  deceived  the  people 
with  the  same  effrontery :  all  teaching  under  the 
name  of  physics,  only  a  frivolous  metaphysics." 
3  33 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

After  finishing  his  studies  in  Paris,  Roger  Bacon 
returned  to  Oxford  in  1250,  where  he  was  received 
with  great  applause.  But  Bacon  was  born,  unfortu- 
nately for  him,  with  a  mind  and  ideas  more  than 
three  centuries  in  advance  of  those  who  were  in  power 
over  him.  About  seven  years  later,  as  the  natural 
result  of  his  teaching  doctrines  differing  so  widely 
from  those  commonly  held  at  his  time,  his  lectures, 
wherein  he  urged  experimental  investigation,  were 
interdicted,  and  he  was  ordered  to  Paris,  where  he 
was  kept  for  ten  years,  virtually  in  prison  and  pro- 
hibited from  lecturing  or  writing  for  publication. 
The  appointment  of  Pope  Clement  IV.,  who  had 
known  Bacon,  and  the  order  from  him  to  write  and 
forward  him  a  treatise  on  the  sciences,  soon  after 
gave  Bacon  his  liberty.  In  a  work  he  wrote  in  1270 
Bacon  made  a  virulent  attack  upon  the  ignorance  and 
vices  of  the  monks  and  clergy.  Such  censures  were 
then  considered  blasphemies,  for  which  he  was  pun- 
ished by  fourteen  years'  actual  imprisonment  and  his 
books  condemned.  When  set  free  in  1292  (by  the 
death  of  Nicholas  IV.)  he  was  nearly  an  octogena- 
rian, and  could  no  longer  inspire  fear.  Even  the 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  For  more  than  two 
centuries  longer,  scholasticism  slept  in  peace. 

When  we  consider  the  number  of  men,  learned  in 
letters,  and  having  all  the  means  time  and  opportu- 

34 


SCHOLASTIC  PHILOSOPHY 

nity  in  their  monastic  retreats  during  nearly  a  thou- 
sand years  for  the  true  study  of  nature  and  of  the 
works  of  God,  it  seems  almost  incomprehensible  that 
absolutely  nothing  was  done  by  them.  The  thoughts 
of  the  wisest  men  were  paralyzed  by  the  conviction 
that  when  God  said,  "  Let  us  make  man  in  our  image 
and  likeness,"  *  the  mind  of  man  was  the  subject 
of  the  likeness,  even  more  so  than  the  body ;  there- 
fore, to  study  the  intellect  and  its  faculties  was  to 
learn  to  know  the  Creative  Reason,  the  Intellectus 
Agens,  of  Aristotle :  truly,  if  knowable,  the  noblest 
study  for  mankind !  But  the  lapse  of  2300  years 
from  the  days  of  early  Greece  had  taught  men  nothing ! 
To  such  minds  Matter,  as  presented  to  the  senses, 
offered  only  that  which  was  base  and  degrading. 
With  most  men  still  lingered  vestiges  of  the  Gnostic 
belief  that,  for  its  bare  existence  even,  a  Demiurgos 
was  needed,  since  it  was  insulting  to  the  Absolute, 
the  Unconditioned  Being  to  imagine  Him  to  come 
into  contact  with  the  material  of  this  impure  earth, 
even  by  creating  it. 

If  the  thought  which  men  have  spent  upon  the  ul- 
timate nature  of  the  universals  and  of  their  relation  to 
the  Absolute  had  been  devoted  to  observing  the  tan- 
gible world  around  them  ;  if  they  had  studied  the 

*  "  Faciemus  hominum  ad  imaginem  et  similitudinem  nostram." 
Vulgate.    Gen.  1,  27. 

35 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

visible  works  of  God  and  the  laws  that  govern  their 
action,  instead  of  the  fond  conceits  of  their  own 
minds  as  to  the  ultimate  nature  of  the  Unknowable, 
in  how  different  a  world  we  might  now  be  living ! 

36 


CHAPTER  III 

BELIEF  IN  ASTROLOGY  AND  ALCHEMY  —  THEIR 
INDIRECT  BENEFIT  TO  MANKIND — THE  BELIEF 
IN  WITCHCRAFT. 

"  Du  wirst  auf  die  Sternen-stunde  warten 
Bis  dir  die  irdische  entfliehtl   glaub  mir 
In  deiner  Brust  sind  deiner  Schicksals  Sterne. 
Vertrauen  zu  dir  selbst.     Entschlossenheit 
1st  deine  Venus  1     Der  Maleficus, 
Der  einzige  der  dir  Schadet,  ist  der  Zweifel."  * 

IT  has  often  happened  in  the  individual  experiences 
of  men  that  their  mistakes,  their  failures,  and  sometimes 
even  their  superstitious  follies,  have  led  to  success  in 
the  purposes  they  had  in  view,  when  their  wisest 
thoughts,  best  laid  plans  and  well  constructed  efforts 
had  proved  vain  and  abortive.  The  history  of  the 
Middle  Ages  shows  the  same  results  to  have  attended 
the  growth  of  knowledge  and  the  progress  of  science. 
All  that  philosophy  could  teach  and  academical  learn- 
ing show,  after  hundreds  of  years  devoted  to  their 
study,  was  emptiness  and- vanity.  We  now  know 

*  Schiller  :  Die  Piccolomini  2-Aufzug.     6-Auftritt. 
37 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

that  the  teachers  of  true  knowledge  had  often  been 
the  covetous,  the  credulous  and  the  charlatan. 

Two  pseudo  sciences,  astrology  and  alchemy,  born 
in  delusions,  nourished  and  raised  chiefly  by  fraud 
and  superstition,  have  each  given  birth  in  their  old 
age  to  offspring  respectively  the  wonder  and  the 
pride  of  mankind  !  The  elder,  astrology,  born  on 
the  plains  of  Chaldea  more  than  10,000  years  ago, 
was  at  an  early  date  the  parent  of  the  worship  of  the 
planets,  of  .which  the  sun  was  considered  as  being 
one,  and  whose  worship  continues  in  some  lands  to 
the  present  day.  Astrology  was  looked  upon  as  the 
arbiter,  disposer  and  revealer  of  man's  destiny,  and 
was  accepted  as  such  by  many  of  the  greatest  minds 
as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century.  It  was  believed 
in  by  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Charles 
the  Fifth,  Tycho-Brahe  and  Kepler.  It  was  the 
daily  guide  of  Wallenstein ;  even  Napoleon  had  faith 
in  the  stars.  At  last,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
when  finally  forsaken  by  nearly  all,  it  left  a  daughter — 
Astronomy — crowned  with  honor  and  glory,  placed 
at  the  summit  of  human  achievement. 

Alchemy,  the  younger  pseudo  science,  had  a  more 
honorable  origin.  Born,  as  its  name  may  seem  to 
indicate  (Al-Khemi),  in  Egypt ;  claiming  its  birth 
from  Trismegistus  and  the  Hermetic  books,  and  com- 
ing from  Arabia  to  Europe,  the  knowledge  that  it 

38 


ALCHEMY 

brought  was  real,  embracing  all  that  time  and 
experience  had  given  it  in  the  past  centuries.  Many 
of  the  Arts  among  the  Orientals  had  reached  an 
advanced  state.  Their  physicians  were  learned — had 
much  surgical  knowledge  and  an  extensive  materia 
medica:  The  armorer's  metal  work,  enamels,  and 
jewelry  showed  skilful  and  practiced  artisans.  Han- 
dling thus  metals,  their  alloys  and  other  minerals, 
their  labors  soon  led  them  to  the  adoption  of  the 
Scholastic  or  Aristotelian  theories  of  Matter  and 
Form ;  that  is,  that  the  Matter  of  all  the  metals  and 
of  all  things  being  one  and  the  same,  it  followed  that 
one  metal  could  be  changed  into  another  one  if  the 
suitable  means  of  varying  the  Form  was  discovered. 
The  resemblance  that  many  of  the  sulphides  of  the 
metals  bore  to  the  metals  themselves  led  to  the  belief 
that  all  the  metals  proper  were  compounds  of  sul- 
phur and  mercury ;  the  latter,  being  the  most  vola- 
tile, silverlike,  and  the  only  metal  liquid  at  ordinary 
temperature,  appeared  naturally  to  be  the  proper 
vehicle  for  the  formation  of  gold  and  silver — the 
noblest  of  metals — if  only  perfect  sulphur  and  per- 
fect mercury  could  be  found.  If  the  conversion  of 
one  metal  might  thus  be  accomplished,  the  conversion 
of  other  things  would  doubtless  soon  follow. 

The  pursuit  of  the    object  thus  sought  for,  was 
called  the  search  for  the  Philosopher's  Stone.     The 

39 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

reasoning  that  caused  the  quest  was  logical  and  the 
desired  conclusion  most  probable,  if  only  the  prem- 
ises assumed  were  correct.  Unfortunately  they  were 
not  so ;  but,  like  the  mirage  in  the  desert,  the  hoped 
for  result  seemed  ever  near,  but  was  never  reached. 
It  was  believed  that  an  agent,  if  ever  found,  thus 
powerful  over  the  refractory  metals,  must  likewise  be 
so  over  the  human  body.  Its  zealous  pursuers  mis- 
understood or  took  in  a  literal  sense,  the  enigmatical 
phrases  and  recipes  of  the  masters  of  the  art ;  thus 
the  Philosopher's  Stone  or  "  Powder  of  Projection," 
as  it  was  often  called,  became  also  the  Elixir  of  life 
to  be  sought  for  as  the  cure  for  all  the  ills  that  af- 
fected the  body,  and  the  prolonger  indefinitely  of 
human  existence. 

Introduced  into  Constantinople  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  Alchemy  was  practiced  there  exten- 
sively. After  the  establishment  of  Mohammedanism 
it  was  carried  by  the  Arab,  Geber,  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  Offering  to  its  adherents  the  greatest 
prizes  this  world  could  give,  and  quite  consistent  in 
its  theories  and  principles  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
time,  it  drew  to  itself  men  of  all  degrees,  from  the 
college,  the  cloister  and  the  throne.  Beside  the 
Arabs — Geber,  Avicennes,  Averrhoes — the  Christians, 
Roger  Bacon,  Albertus  Magnus,  Raymond  Lully, 
Paracelsus — and  even  Henry  VI.  of  England,  were 

40 


ASTROLOGY 

among  its  disciples.  Rudolph  II.,  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, devoted  much  of  his  time  to  its  practice,  and 
employed  the  celebrated  Tycho-Brahe  in  this  labor 
and  in  astrological  work.  Lord  Bacon,  Spinoza, 
Leibnitz  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton  all  believed  in  the 
transmutation  of  metals  through  the  Philosopher's 
Stone.  The  minds  of  all  men  were  so  imbued  with 
the  conviction  that  a-priori  reasoning  was  the  only 
gateway  to  knowledge  that  the  valuable  results  of 
experiment  were  to  a  great  extent  lost.  The  concep- 
tion that  the  Platonic,  idealistic  doctrine  of  the  Form- 
ative Spirit  alone  lent  to  matter  its  tangible  exis- 
tence gave  birth  to  an  endless  number  of  imaginary 
aerial  beings  that  exercised  a  controlling  influence 
over  all  their  work.  Every  metal  stood  under  the 
mysterious  influence  of  one  of  the  planets.  It  be- 
came therefore  necessary  in  their  researches  that  the 
astronomical,  or  rather  the  astrological,  state  of  the 
heavens  should  be  observed,  as  it  would  be  an  all- 
important  factor  in  the  hoped  for  result.  Each 
planet  and  each  metal  held  control  over  certain  por- 
tions of  the  human  body.  The  almanacs  for  the 
people  long  held,  and  a  few  still  hold,  a  chart  in 
which  the  human  body  is  apportioned  among  the  rul- 
ing planets  and  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  This  rela- 
tion between  them  and  the  nature  of  man  must  also 
enter  into  consideration,  since  the  planets  or  certain 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

stars  had  dominion  over  health,  fortune,  riches,  birth, 
life,  death,  etc.,  as  the  stars  might  enter,  or  rule  over, 
one  or  the  other  of  the  twelve  houses  into  which  the 
heavens  were  divided. 

The  incidental  benefits  which  these  labors,  vain  in 
their  original  purpose,  gave  to  the  world,  and  the 
discoveries  made  thereby  have  been  of  incalculable 
value.  Almost  all  that  was  known  in  chemistry,  in 
medicine  and  metallurgy,  as  late  as  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  has  been  its  legacy.  But  the  facts 
collected  were  necessarily  disconnected,  of  conflicting 
and  uncertain  value;  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  recipes, 
products  and  compounds,  into  which  little  or  no 
attempt  had  been  made  to  introduce  systematic  classi- 
fication or  scientific  order. 

Another  cause,  more  potent  still,  held  back  with 
iron  hand  the  advance  of  science;  this  was  the  belief 
of  the  church  and  of  the  people  in  witchcraft  and  in  the 
demonic  powers  that  Alchemy  could  invoke.  From 
what  has  been  said  of  the  Platonic  theories  of  the 
constitution  of  the  substance — i.  e.,  the  union  of  the 
inform  Matter  without  body,  shape  or  substance,  with 
the  creative  spirit  or  the  essence  of  the  Form — it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  substance,  with  its  accident  or  peculiar 
qualities,  depended  upon  the  said  Form,  essence  or  spirit. 
The  Church  asserted  that  this  spirit  was  the  Divine 

42 


ALCHEMY 

creative  Spirit;  and,  having  thus  said,  to  question 
further  was  unwise,  if  not  impious. 

The  students  of  Alchemy  were  not  always  so  very 
docile.  Without  discussing  the  abstract  nature  of 
the  Divine  Spirit,  many  believed  that  other  spirits 
existed,  and  that  each  controlled  certain  of  the  four 
elements :  the  air,  fire,  water  and  the  earth,  of  which 
all  things  were  made.  Most  of  these  elementary 
Spirits  were  thought  to  be  negative  in  their  character, 
neither  good  nor  evil.  Others,  though,  were  unques- 
tionably evil,  but  could  be  induced  to  render  aid  to 
one  person  in  order  to  injure  another,  or  give  a 
present  and  immediate  help,  to  be  paid  for  in  a  distant 
future.  Many  formula  for  incantation  and  conjura- 
tion existed  in  books  of  Magic,  and  were  taught  by 
the  professors  of  the  art  as  being  an  indispensable 
aid.  The  Church  did  not  question  the  verity  of  these 
Spiritual  Existences  as  much  even  as  did  many  of  the 
Alchemists,  but  viewed  them  all  as  beings  from  Hell, 
and  that  they  were  Devils,  or  the  children  of  the  Devil. 

It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  the  Church  should 
look  with  disfavor  upon  the  practice  of  the  art ;  but 
many  men  of  high  positions  within  its  fold,  as  we 
have  seen,  were  active  therein,  and  the  temporal 
fortune  of  the  Church  might  even  itself  profit  through 
the  Philosopher's  Stone.  Its  study  and  practice, 
therefore,  were  not  exactly  prohibited,  yet  the  fol- 

43 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

lowers  of  the  Black  Art,  as  it  was  called,  were  closely 
watched  and  quickly  called  to  account  and  punished 
for  any  infraction  of  dogma  or  of  discipline  that  arose 
therefrom.  So  long  as  men  confined  themselves  to 
the  legitimate  work  of  their  laboratories — the  quest 
for  the  power  of  transmutation — they  were  not  dis- 
turbed; but  if  they  sought  beyond  or  attempted  to 
question  the  truth  of  the  teaching  of  the  orthodox 
Natura  Naturata,  the  fate  of  Roger  Bacon  and  of 
Galileo,  if  not  that  of  Giordano  Bruno,  awaited  them. 

The  general  belief  in  the  agency  and  power  of 
these  master  and  ministering  spirits  of  the  unseen 
world  led  to  the  dread  delusion  of  Witchcraft,  whose 
horrors  spread  over  Europe  the  more  widely  as  the 
practice  of  Alchemy  became  more  general,  and  with  it 
died  as  the  world  grew  wiser.  The  history  of  its 
cruel  persecution,  of  the  innocent  lives  that,  passed 
away  in  a  fiery  death,  and  of  the  fearful  superstition, 
common  alike  to  the  magistrates,  to  the  priests  of 
the  Roman  and  to  the  ministers  of  the  Reformed 
Churches,  lie,  fortunately  for  us,  outside  of  our  prov- 
ince, and  needs  not  to  be  further  here  discussed. 

To  recapitulate :  thus  far  as  we  have  seen,  the  learn- 
ing of  the  world,  apart  from  theology  and  dialectics, 
principally  consisted  in  studying,  contrasting,  or  en- 
deavoring to  reconcile  the  more  or  less  contradictory 
views  of  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  so-called  Physics 

44 


ALCHEMY 

of  the  latter  were  assumed  to  be  true.  The  Ptolemaic 
system  of  the  universe,  in  which  the  Earth  was  the 
centre  around  which  all  the  planets  and  the  stars 
revolved,  was  apparently  the  natural  and  proper 
place  for  God  to  become  incarnate.  It  became  iden- 
tified with  the  true  Catholic  Faith,  which  none  were 
allowed  to  question.  The  doctrine  that  man  was 
created  pure,  innocent  and  wise;  that  he  had  since 
become  degraded,  and  that  to  turn  to  the  learning  of 
the  past  was  to  draw  from  the  fountain  of  pure  wis- 
dom was  not  only  the  teaching  of  the  Church,  but  the 
inborn  conviction  of  nearly  all  men.  Holding  to 
these  opinions  the  world  could  not  advance.  A  new 
revelation  was  needed,  and  it  was  soon  to  open. 

45 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  PUBLICATION  OF  THE  TRUE  PLANETARY  SYS- 
TEM BY  COPERNICUS — IT  ESCAPES  FOR  FIFTY 
YEARS  THE  NOTICE  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

Sta  Sol.  Ne  moveare.    Sapere  auso. 

***-*** 
La  Pologne  enfanta  1'homme. 
Qui  arreta  le  soleil  et  fit  mouvoir  la  terre.* 

NICHOLAS  COPERNICUS  was  born  Feb.  19,  1473, 
at  Thorn,  in  Prussian  Poland.  Died  May  24,  1543. 
His  father,  who  died  young,  bore  the  same  Christian 
name.  His  mother  was  Barbara  Watzelrod,  sister 
of  the  Bishop  of  Warnic,  or  Emerland,  in  Poland, 
who  educated  him.  At  the  age  of  18  he  was  sent  to 
the  University  of  Cracow,  where  he  studied  Latin, 
Greek,  and  particularly  Mathematics.  Two  years 
later  he  returned  to  Thorn  with  the  intention  of  tak- 
ing orders,  but  in  1495  he  repaired  to  Padua,  where, 
in  its  University  and  in  that  of  Bologna,  he  achieved 
so  great  a  reputation  that  he  was  called  to  Rome, 

*  From  the  monument  to  him  in  the  church  at  Cracow.     Trans- 
lated from  the  Polish.    Larousse. 

46 


COPERNICUS 

when  27  years  old,  to  the  professorship  of  mathematics. 
After  a  short  time  spent  in  Thorn  he  returned  to  Italy, 
but  in  1503  left  for  Cracow,  where  he  was  made  a 
priest.  He  settled  finally  in  1510  at  Frauenberg  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic.  Here  he  built  an  observatory 
and  perfected  his  astronomical  labors.  Copernicus  had 
studied  all  the  works  on  astronomy  that  had  come 
down  from  antiquity.  He  was  probably  acquainted 
with  those  of  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  who  had  preceded 
him  in  his  theory  nearly  two  generations.  Cusa's 
works  were  published  in  Paris  in  1514.  Copernicus 
saw  that  the  system  described  by  Apollonius  of  Perge 
— the  author  of  Epicycles — that  placed  the  sun  in 
the  centre  of  the  planets'  orbits,  but  caused  it  to 
move  like  the  moon  around  the  earth  (the  system 
afterwards  adopted  by  Tycho-Brahe),  was  much 
simpler  than  the  Ptolemaic,  and  explained  better  the 
movement  of  Venus  and  Mars;  but  it  did  not  satisfy 
his  own  required  conditions  for  the  earth.  He  com- 
pleted his  new  Astronomy  about  1512,  but  from  diffi- 
dence and  distrust  of  himself,  as  well  as  from  the  fear 
of  ridicule,  it  was  not  published  to  the  world  until 
1543,  at  Nuremberg,  when  he  was  70  years  of  age. 
This  fear  of  ridicule  was  well  founded,  for  there  is 
nothing  so  sure  of  itself  or  so  intolerant  as  ignorance. 
As  early  as  1530,  the  report  of  his  novel  views  had 
spread  far  and  wide  among  the  astronomers;  but  he 

47 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

still  withheld  his  publications — varying  and  repeating 
his  observations  and  testing  his  new  theories  by  calcu- 
lating their  adaptation  to  explain  the  most  difficult 
and  complicated  problems,  such  as  the  apparently 
retrograde  motions  of  the  planets,  the  procession  of 
the  equinoxes,  etc.  Finally,  in  1543,  his  book  ap- 
peared, "  De  Orbium  Celestium  Revolutionibus,"  in 
which  the  sun  is  placed  at  the  centre  of  the  system. 
Around  it  the  planets  revolved  in  their  orbits,  which 
he  thought  were  perfect  circles,  of  which  planets  the 
earth  was  one.  It  revolved  on  its  axis,  and  around 
it  its  satellite,  the  moon.  He  dedicated  his  book  to  the 
Pope,  Paul  III.,  saying:  "In  order  that  they  may  not 
accuse  me  of  fleeing  from  the  judgment  of  enlight- 
ened people,  and  in  order  that  the  authority  of  your 
Holiness,  if  you  approve  this  work,  may  preserve 
me  from  the  virulence  of  calumny." 

The  first  copy  of  his  work  was  brought  to  him 
only  when  on  his  deathbed.  He  touched  it,  saw  it,  but 
his  mind  was  then  nearly  gone.  In  a  few  hours  he 
was  dead. 

The  system  of  Copernicus  was  eagerly  adopted  by 
some  of  the  most  illustrious  savants,  but  decried  by 
many  others.  He  could  offer  no  other  proofs  of  its 
truth  than  its  simplicity,  in  opposition  to  the  com- 
plexity of  the  Ptolemaic  system.  Since  his  day  many 
proofs  are  present  to  us  that  did  not  exist  in  his  time. 

48 


COPERNICUS 

The  telescope  bad  not  then  been  invented.  The  first 
direct  proof  of  his  theory  was  given  when  Galileo 
saw  the  disk  of 'Venus,  could  distinguish  the  phases 
of  Venus  and  of  Mars,  and  determine  the  variation 
of  their  apparent  diameters  as  they  changed  their 
position  in  their  orbits. 

Copernicus,  though  founding  a  system  of  Astronomy 
in  direct  opposition  to  that  taught  by  the  philosophy 
of  the  Catholic  faith,  was  opposed  to  the  Reformation 
that  Luther  was  effecting  in  Germany.  It  is  possible 
that  the  fact  of  his  non-participation  in  the  religious 
movement  against  the  Church  may  have  permitted 
him  to  carry  out  his  labors  in  peace  and  quiet  to 
their  completion,  for  the  novelty  of  his  theories  had 
attracted  much  attention  long  before  their  open  pub- 
lication. His  work,  being  addressed  to  astronomers 
only,  devoid  of  all  reflection  upon  the  influence  that  it 
might  exert  over  the  dogmatic  teachings  of  the  Church, 
published  at  the  expense  of  a  Cardinal  and  dedicated 
to  the  Pope,  escaped  for  a  long  time  the  "  Index  Ex- 
purgatorus."  The  Theories  of  Kepler,  contradicted  or 
confirmed  as  they  individually  might  be  through  his 
persevering  observations  and  calculations,  resulted 
finally,  in  the  establishment  of  his  three  well-known 
laws  and  their  publications  in  1608  and  1618,  thus 
perfecting  and  confirming  the  Copernican  system  of 
Astronomy. 

4  49 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

By  this  time  the  Church  had  awakened  to  its  im- 
portance, and  prohibited  its  teaching  and  that  of 
Kepler. 

50 


CHAPTER  V 

GIORDANO  BRUNO  ADVOCATES  THE  COPERNICAN 
ASTRONOMY  AND  THE  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS 
— ARRESTED  BY  THE  HOLY  INQUISITION — IM- 
PRISONED FOR  SEVEN  YEARS,  THEN  BURNED 
ALIVE — HIS  VIEWS  AND  DOCTRINES. 

THE  promoters  and  advocates  of  the  true  study  of 
nature  and  of  the  advance  of  knowledge  had  kept 
thus  far  strictly  within  the  lines  of  religious  dogma 
as  accepted  substantially  both  by  the  Church  of 
Rome  and  by  the  Protestants.  About  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  a  man  was  born  who  attacked 
the  foundation  of  orthodox  belief,  as 'well  as  those  of 
the  philosophy  and  physics  on  which  both  divisions 
of  Faith  rested.  His  teachings,  though  influencing 
and  forming  to  a  great  degree  the  doctrines  of  Des- 
cartes, Spinoza  and  the  other  master  minds  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  had  remained  but  little  known 
to  the  laity  and  the  generality  of  readers  until  the 
latter  half  of  this  century,  when  the  wider  progress  of 
science  has  brought  his  name  prominently  before  the 
World,  One  of  the  great  philosophers  of  the  sixteenth 

51 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

century,  if  not  the  greatest — GIORDANO  BRUNO — 
was  born  at  Nola,  near  Naples,  Italy,  in  1548.  As 
Huss  was  a  Martyr  to  the  Reformation,  though  pre- 
ceding it,  so  Bruno  was  a  still  greater  Martyr  in  ad- 
vance of  the  Revolution  in  Philosophy ;  a  greater 
Martyr,  for  he  was  unrecognized  and  misunderstood 
by  all.  None  gave  him  honor  in  life,  and  he  ended 
it  as  Huss  did,  and  at  least  as  courageously,  in  flames 
on  the  scaffold. 

Little  is  known  of  the  parentage  and  early  days 
of  Bruno.  The  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  unknown. 
He  first  appears  when  entering  the  order  of  the 
Dominicans  at  Naples  in  his  15th  year.  His  educa- 
tion had  been  well  cared  for.  To  the  mathematical 
and  philosophical  sciences  of  the  day  he  added  the 
studies  of  letters  and  theology,  showing  from  his 
youth  a  happy  memory,  a  facile  conception  and  an 
ardent,  enthusiastic  spirit.  The  desire  to  increase  the 
light  given  him  was  the  cause  of  his  entering  the 
order,  but  the  corrupt  morals  of  his  companions  of 
the  Cloister,  and  the  difficulties  beyond  number  that 
the  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Church  presented  to 
his  mind,  soon  disgusted  him  with  his  new  condition. 
He  abandoned  his  convent  and  his  country  and  with- 
drew to  Geneva  about  1580.  There  he  studied  Cal- 
vinism, but,  dissatisfied  therewith,  left  Geneva  after 
two  years,  passing  by  the  way  of  Lyons  and  Toulouse 

52 


GIORDANO  BRUNO 

to  Paris,  taking  with  him  the  proofs  in  printing  of 
several  works  which  he  published  there.  Since  his 
religious  views  did  not  permit  him  to  speak  from  any 
pulpit,  he  had  himself  made  "Professeur  Extraordin- 
aire" of  Philosophy.  He  attacked  violently  the 
doctrines  of  Aristotle  accepted  then  by  most  men. 
His  own  metaphysical  doctrines  were  founded  on  the 
Platonic  Philosophy,  and  leaned,  as  the  latter  did, 
towards  Pantheism. 

The  disagreeable  treatment  that  his  opinions  drew 
upon  him  caused  him  to  pass  over  to  England  about 
1583.  He  was  kindly  received  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
to  whom  he  dedicated  poems  in  which  he  compared 
her  to  Diana,  and  found  united  in  her  the  beauty  of 
Cleopatra  and  the  genius  of  Semiramis.  These  praises 
of  a  heretic  Queen  were  among  the  crimes  he  was 
charged  with  before  the  Inquisition.  Sir  Philip 
Sydney  also  befriended  him,  as  many  others  did  at 
Court.  In  London  he  published  his  famous  book 
"  Spaccio  Delia  Bestia  Trionfanti "  (Expulsion  of  the 
Triumphant  Beast),  and  several  other  books  of  the 
same  nature.  Among  them  was  the  "  Cena  delle 
Ceneri "  (The  Supper  of  Ash  Wednesday),  devoted  to 
the  exposition  of  the  Copernican  theory.  In  the 
same  year  (1584)  appeared  his  two  great  metaphysical 
works,  "  Delia  Causa — Principio  ed  Uno  "  and  "  Del 
Infinite  Universe  e  Mundi."  In  1585  he  returned 

53 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

to  Paris  for  three  months.  In  1586  he  went  to  Wit- 
tenberg, where  he  taught  Philosophy  until  1588.  He 
then  spent  a  short  time  successively  in  Prague,  Bruns- 
wick, Helmstadt,  and  in  1590  was  in  Frankfort-on- 
tlie-Main.  In  1591  the  imprudent  desire  to  revisit  his 
native  land  led  him  at  first  to  Switzerland  and  then  in 
1 592  to  Venice.  After  residing  there  seven  or  eight 
months  he  was  denounced  as  a  heretic  by  Zuane 
Mocenigo,  who  had  invited  Bruno  there  to  instruct 
him,  and  was  delivered  by  him  into  the  hands  of  the 
Inquisition.  He  was  arrested  and  shut  up  in  the 
prisons  of  the  Inquisition.  Thence  he  was  trans- 
ferred, February  27,  1593,  to  Rome,  where  he  lan- 
guished for  seven  years  in  its  dungeons.  This 
detention  is  represented  to  us  as  a  mercy  that  was 
extended  to  him  to  permit  time  for  a  retraction  of 
his  errors!  Finally,  on  February  9,  1600,  his  sen- 
tence of  death  was  read  to  him.  He  was  convicted 
of  being  an  apostate,  a  heretic,  and  one  faithless  to 
the  vows  of  his  orders.  He  was  degraded  and  deliv- 
ered to  the  Secular  Arm.  On  February  17th  he  was 
conducted  to  the  Campo  di  Fiori  and  burned  alive  at 
the  stake.  It  is  reported  that  when  his  condemnation 
was  read  to  him  he  said  to  his  judges:  "This  sen- 
tence, pronounced  in  the  name  of  a  God  of  Mercy, 
may  cause  to  you,  perhaps,  more  fear  than  it  does 


to  me." 


54 


GIORDANO  BRUNO 

It  was  not  so  much  the  heretical  theistic  doctrines 
of  the  unity  of  "All  in  One  "  that  armed  the  fearful 
severity  of  the  Inquisition  against  him,  as  it  was  the 
assertion  that  the  Earth  moved  around  the  Sun — the 
same  conviction  that  brought  so  much  suffering  to 
Galileo.  Besides  this,  the  open  attack  upon  the 
Aristotelian  Philosophy,  the  many  expressions  against 
the  Monks  and  the  prominent  doctrines  of  the  Church, 
added  to  the  animosity  of  his  judges.  Bruno  was 
urged  to  recant.  Up  to  the  last  moment,  it  is  said, 
he  might  have  saved  his  life  by  a  simple  recantation. 
He  disdained  to  do  so,  or  to  disown  his  convictions, 
and  thrust  the  crucifix  away  when  held  before  him 
as  the  emblem  of  repentance. 

Bruno  had  no  sympathizers  to  support  or  strengthen 
him.  "  No  saintly  halo,  no  echo  of  future  renown  was 
there,  no  admiring  disciple  kept  his  teaching,  to  rise 
in  the  future  like  a  phoenix  from  his  ashes.  His 
contemporaries,  almost  without  exception,  called  him 
a  fanatic  in  life  and  in  doctrine,  thoughtless,  unsteady, 
quarrelsome,  rude  to  his  opponents,  headstrong,  arro- 
gant, obscure,  confused  in  his  doctrines  and  inclined 
to  dissipation.  It  is  not  to  be  believed  that  a  man 
who  was  inspired  so  strongly  by  the  ideal — more 
ardently  even  than  any  other  living  man — could  be 
thus  wrongly  constituted  in  his  life.  They  did  not 
understand  his  doctrine.  The  wisest  and  most  honest 

55 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

of  men  are  not  wise  and  good  enough  to  avoid  deceiv- 
ing themselves  as  to  the  life  and  character  of  a  man. 
The  obscurity  that  surrounded  his  life's  history  does 
not  permit  his  formal  justification.  In  his  doctrines 
at  least  Bruno  was  not  unsettled,  obscure,  confused  or 
fanatic."  * 

Bruno,  however,  had  not  escaped  the  delusions  of 
his  age.  He  was  a  firm  believer  in  the  fantastic  doc- 
trines of  Raymond  Lully,  by  whose  combination  of 
logic,  numerals  and  symbols  it  was  thought  the  truths 
of  Philosophy  could  be  demonstrated.  Bruno  shared 
this  belief  with  many  of  the  Schoolmen  of  his  age. 
He  used  it  mainly  as  a  system  of  Mnemonics.  It  was 
to  instruct  in  this  so-called  Science  that  the  patrician, 
Mocenigo,  lured  him  into  Venice  with  the  already 
formed  intention,  it  is  said,  of  betraying  him  to  the 
Inquisition. 

The  life  and  history  of  the  career  of  the  Cardinal, 
Nicholas  of  Cusa,  born  1401,  died  1464,  had  prob- 
ably much  influence  on  the  doctrines  of  Bruno.  The 
former,  born  of  very  humble  origin,  the  son  of  a  poor 
fisherman,  rose  to  high  dignity  in  the  Church,  and 
applied  himself  passionately  to  science.  He  adopted 
the  Pythagorean  System  of  the  solar  planetary  bodies 
nearly  one  hundred  years  before  Copernicus.  Cusa 
proposed  many  doctrines  at  variance  with  the  ortho- 

*  J.  Meyer.  Grosses  Kons.  Lex. 


GIORDANO  BRUNO 

dox  teachings  of  the  Church.  He  believed  in  the 
possibility  of  a  perfect  peace  between  Philosophy 
and  Religion,  and  of  a  fusion  of  all  religions  into 
one — "  Since  they  contained  as  their  foundation  the 
same  truth,  the  same  faith,  -the  same  God."  His 
views,  held  modestly  but  firmly,  seem  to  have  given 
no  offence. 

At  the  end  of  the  16th  century  Bruno  found  a 
different  atmosphere  around  the  Church.  The  re- 
action against  the  Reformation  was  at  its  height.  The 
theories  of  Copernicus,  of  Keplar  and  of  others 
alarmed  the  Church  ;  they  threatened  the  stability  of 
the  foundation  of  all  Christian  teaching,  and  as  Bruno 
had  spread  his  learning  and  his  books  over  all  Europe, 
Protestant  and  Catholic,  so  was  his  punishment  to  be 
sure  and  inevitable ;  a  lesson  to  the  world.  It  seems, 
though,  that  no  presentiment  of  his  fate  was  felt  by 
him  on  entering  Italy.  He  was  so  well  convinced 
that  his  ideas  of  Philosophy  and  Religion  were  right, 
and  that  in  the  latter  he  was  not  heretical,  that  he 
felt  no  fear.  When  he  had  spent  years  in  prison  he 
was  still  unchanged,  and  was  willing  to  die  rather 
than  be  false  to  his  convictions  and  recant,  as  Galileo 
did.  The  Metaphysics,  Religion  and  Philosophy  of 
Bruno  may  be  told  in  his  own  words : 

"  It  is  recognized  as  an  universal  truth  that  every 
compound  or  thing  divisible  has  for  its  foundation 

57 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

something  that  is  not  compounded  and  that  is  indi- 
visible. The  understanding  of  Man  has  striven  un- 
ceasingly to  seek  out  this  unity,  and  will  never  cease 
to  seek  and  strive  for  it  until  he  can  find  it  in  the 
nature  of  the  substance,  or  can  at  least  present  a  clear 
conception  thereof  to  his  imagination.  This  Unity 
can  only  be  in  God  !  Let  all  that  have  breath  rise 
up  to  the  praise  of  the  Most  High  and  Mighty  One, 
who  alone  is  the  Good  and  the  Truth  :  to  the  praise 
of  the  Infinite  Being,  who  is  the  Cause  and  the 
Principle — The  One  and  the  All.  God  is  infinite  in 
infinity :  everywhere  in  all.  Not  above,  but  every- 
where present :  as  existence  is  not  outside  of  the  ex- 
istent, as  the  natural  is  not  above  or  beyond  nature, 
as  Goodness  is  not  other  than  the  Good.  God  is  the 
Single  Being,  with  whom  there  is  no  combination ; 
with  whom  there  can  be  no  difference.  Existence, 
power,  action  and  will  are,  with  Him,  one.  His  will 
is  necessary — necessity  itself.  He  is  like  only  unto 
Himself,  and  ever  the  same.  Freedom  and  necessity 
are  with  Him  one.  What  God  makes  he  cannot 
make  otherwise  than  as  He  makes  it.  He  acts  from 
necessity ;  for  the  Infinite  Power,  if  limited  neither 
by  itself  nor  through  anything  else,  acts  through  the 
necessity  of  its  being.  Therefore  what  God  creates 
must  be  without  an  end,  for  he  works  according  to 
the  necessity  of  His  being. 

58 


GIORDANO  BRUNO 

"The  All  is  one  and  infinite.  But  if  the  Uni- 
verse is  infinite,  it  is  also  not  removable.  It  cannot 
change  its  place,  for  outside  of  it  there  is  no  place. 
It  is  not  engendered,  for  all  existence  is  its  own 
existence.  It  cannot  pass  away,  for  there  is  nothing 
into  which  it  could  pass.  It  can  neither  increase  nor 
decrease;  for,  being  itself  Infinite,  in  which  no  rela- 
tive proportions  apply,  still  less  can  it  be  added  to 
or  taken  from.  It  is  subject  to  no  change,  neither 
from  outward  nor  inward,  for  out  of  it  nothing  is, 
nor  from  within,  because  it  is  all  that  is,  and  that  can 
be,  at  once  and  at  the  same  time. 

"  We  cannot  elevate  our  minds  to  the  conception 
of  the  Most  High,  the  knowledge  of  whom  lies  be- 
yond the  limits  of  the  human  understanding;  but  we 
can  to  that  intelligence  that  forms  the  soul  of  the 
world ,  is  capable  of  all,  accomplishes  all,  is  all,  and 
from  the  endless  number  of  things  therein,  which  is 
of  it  and  in  it,  forms  one  being.  To  know  this  Unity 
is  the  object  of  the  investigation  of  nature  and  of 
all  Philosophy. 

"  There  exists,  or  may  exist,  an  infinite  number  of 
worlds  like  unto  ours,  since  space  is  infinite.  These 
worlds  cannot  interfere  with  each  other,  for  in  space 
the  centre  is  everywhere.  The  universe  has  no  form, 
for  that  which  is  infinite  can  have  none.  The  Evil 
and  the  Good,  the  useful  and  the  hurtful,  the  just 

59 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

and  the  unjust,  are  nothing  in  themselves ;  they  exist 
only  by  comparison ;  in  fact,  the  infinite  power  of 
God  would  have  no  place  if  there  existed  simul- 
taneously an  infinite  principle  of  Evil.  The  Atoms  * 
are  the  foundation  and  basis  of  all  things  ;  but  they 
are  put  in  motion  by  the  spirit  of  God — the  soul  of 
the  world,  f 

"The  Sun — the  Father  of  life — is  the  centre  of  our 
world,  but  the  centre  of  the  Universe  is  in  all  things 
.  .  .  There  are  as  many  centres  as  there  are  worlds 
and  stars,  and  these  in  number  are  infinite.  The 
Earth  moves ;  it  turns  on  its  own  axis  and  it  moves 
around  the  sun  .  .  .  There  are  innumerable  worlds 
like  ours,  throned  and  spaced  amidst  the  Ether  and 
pursuing  a  course  in  heaven  like  unto  ours.  The 
suns  are  inhabited  as  well  as  the  surrounding  earths. 
It  is  not  reasonable  to  believe  that  any  part  of  the 
Universe  is  without  a  soul,  life,  sensation  and  or- 
ganic structure ;  and  it  is  as  foolish  to  believe  that 
there  are  no  beings,  nor  minds,  nor  possibilities  of 
thought  beyond  the  objects  of  our  own  senses  .  .  . 
From  this  infinite  all,  full  of  beauty  and  splendor, 
from  the  vast  worlds  which  circle  above  us  to  the 
sparkling  dew  of  stars  beyond,  the  conclusion  is  drawn 
that  there  are  an  infinity  of  creatures;  a  vast  multi- 

*  Of  Lucretius. 

•j- J.  Meyer— Kons'n  Lex'n.     Edition  1843,  52  vols.,  0. 
60 


GIORDANO   BRUNO 

tude,  which  each  in  its  degree  mirrors  forth  the 
splendor,  wisdom  and  excellence  of  the  Divine 
Being."  *  This  is  what  the  Church  decries  as  Pan- 
theism ! 

*  Life  of  Bruno  by  I.  Frith,  p.  43,  et  aeq. 
61 


CHAPTER  VI 

EXTENSION  OF  THE  STUDY  OF  PHILOSOPHY  AMONG 
THE  LAITY — THE  LIFE  AND  WRITINGS  OF  DES- 
CARTES—  OPPOSITION  TO  THE  ARISTOTELIAN 
DOGMAS  AND  TO  ALL  AUTHORITY  THAT  COULD 
CONTROL  THOUGHT  AND  LEARNING. 

DURING  the  greater  part  of  the  sixteenth  century 
the  learning  that  before  then  had  practically  been 
confined  to  the  religious  orders  had  by  that  time 
thoroughly  penetrated  the  higher  classes  of  the  laity. 
Men  of  rank,  of  wealth  and  of  leisure  became  also 
often  men  of  learning.  Belles-Lettres  and  poetry 
principally  interested  them;  but  an  ever-increasing 
number  devoted  their  time  to  the  study  of  Philosophy 

Born  under  happier  influences  than  the  ill-fated 
Bruno,  RENE  DESCARTES,  the  son  of  a  noble  family, 
began  his  life  in  Touraine,  France,  March  31,  1596. 
Educated  by  the  Jesuits,  he  early  showed,  though 
delicate  in  health,  a  passionate  love  for  study.  On 
arriving  at  his  philosophical  course  he  soon  found 
the  emptiness  of  so-called  science,  as  then  taught; 

62 


DESCARTES 

but  he  was  strongly  attracted  by  mathematics,  which 
he  was  destined  to  greatly  improve.  His  biographer, 
Biot,  states : 

"His  first  endeavor,  on  leaving  school,  was  to 
erase  from  his  understanding,  as  far  as  possible,  all 
that  was  uncertain  in  its  nature,  and  thenceforward 
to  admit  only  that  which  was  capable  of  being  proved 
by  reason  and  demonstration.  He  thus  invented 
that  system  of  doubt  and  of  examination  which  has 
since  been  the  first  principle  of  all  positive  science. 
We  do  not  now  appreciate  the  value  of  such  an 
effort;  for  we  have  grown  up  under  its  teaching,  so 
that  it  seems  reasonable  and  natural.  But  at  the 
time  of  Descartes  the  Aristotelian  Philosophy  ruled 
despotically  over  all  minds.  It  was  considered  in 
the  Colleges  the  necessary  support  of  all  religion. 
To  doubt  Aristotle  was  not  only  a  novelty,  but  a 
crime.  What  strength  of  mind  must  this  young  man 
of  nineteen  have  possessed  to  have  hoped  to  reform 
the  judgment  of  all.  It  is  not  less  astonishing  that 
Descartes  appears  at  that  time  to  have  already  made 
his  most  brilliant  mathematical  discoveries. 

"  He  thought  it  was  not  yet  the  time  to  publish  his 
new  ideas.  He  determined  to  enter  the  Army, 
which  would  give  him  the  opportunity  to  travel  and 
to  see  the  world.  He  served  as  a  Volunteer  in  the 
troops  of  Holland  and  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria. 

63 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

He  continued  his  mathematical  and  metaphysical 
speculations  during  his  camp  life  for  some  years, 
until  finally  the  reverses  that  the  army  met  with  and 
that  he  witnessed  in  Hungary  caused  him  to"  relin- 
quish his  military  position.  After  this  he  traveled 
for  some  time  in  France,  Holland,  Switzerland,  the 
Tyrol,  Italy,  Venice  and  Rome.  He  never  met 
Galileo,  nor  did  he  ever  appreciate  his  great  dis- 
coveries, showing  that,  admirable  as  Descartes  was 
in  Geometry,  he  was  ignorant  of  the  true  principles 
of  that  method  of  observation  which  alone  could 
advance  the  knowledge  of  Physics.  In  1629  he 
retired  into  Holland,  believing  that  he  would  not  be 
free  in  France  to  pursue  his  meditations.  There  he 
worked  at  Metaphysics,  Anatomy,  Chemistry  and 
Astronomy.  He  composed  a  "Traite  du  Monde"  as 
he  conceived  it,  but,  hearing  of  the  imprisonment  of 
Galileo,  he  feared  to  publish  it.  Probably  the  dread 
of  persecution  was  the  cause  of  his  adopting  Tycho 
Brahe's  system  of  Astronomy,  according  to  which  the 
sun  and  the  planets  moved  around  the  Earth." 

At  this  date  he  had  published  no  extended  mathe- 
matical works.  Yielding  to  the  solicitations  of  his 
friends,  he  now  gave  to  the  world  his  "  Traite  de  la 
Methode,"  in  which  his  mathematical  discoveries 
constituted  one  chapter  only.  He  placed  far  higher 
value  upon  his  metaphysical  writings  than  upon  his 

64 


DESCARTES 

mathematical.  Posterity  has  not  ratified  his  judg- 
ment in  this  respect.  It  is  upon  the  latter  that  his 
fame  now  rests.  To  him  is  due  the  present  system 
of  notation  by  which  the  degree  of  involution  of  a 
number  is  represented  by  a  smaller  numeral  placed 
above  and  to  the  right  of  the  said  number,  thus 
making  the  former  the  exponent  thereof,  and  dis- 
placing the  various  and  cumbersome  methods  of  ex- 
pression then  in  use.  The  method  of  expressing  in 
Algebraic  terms  the  properties  of  a  curve  is  his 
discovery,  by  which  its  nature  is  defined  by  the 
relation  existing  between  two  variable  lines — the 
ordinates  and  the  abscissa.  From  the  equation  thus 
obtained  all  the  other  geometric  relations  of  the  curve 
can  be  deduced.  The  inverse  proceeding,  by  which, 
when  having  the  algebraic  formula  he  could  regard 
the  abscissa  as  the  roots  of  an  equation,  enabled  him 
readily  to  solve  problems  in  Geometry  that  had 
arrested  all  antiquity.  Among  his  other  discoveries 
was  the  rule  he  has  given  by  which  to  recognize  the 
number  of  real  roots  which  an  equation  may  only 
have,  from  the  alternatives  of  the  signs  that  have 
among  them  the  terms  which  compose  it.  These 
treatises  on  Geometry  assure  to  Descartes  an  immortal 
renown.  Having  rendered  him  this  just  homage, 
we  may  venture  to  speak  with  equal  truth  in  regard 
to  his  other  writings.  The  knowledge  of  the  laws  of 
5  65 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

optics  was  then  too  limited  to  permit  his  studies 
therein  to  be  of  much  value  now.  He  added  to 
what  was  then  known,  his  discoveries  as  to  the  true 
laws  of  refraction.  He  pointed  out  the  fact  that  the 
only  rays  that  enter  the  eye  of  an  observer  from  the 
rainbow  are  those  which,  penetrating  the  raindrop 
under  a  certain  angle,  are  so  reflected  within  it  as  to 
become  visible  to  the  spectator.  His  "Theory  of 
Vortices,"  published  in  1644  in  the  Philosophia 
Priucipia,  attracted  the  attention  of  the  world. 
According  to  it  the  sun  and  each  of  the  fixed  stars  are 
the  centre  of  a  whirlwind  (Tourbillon)  or  Vortex  of 
finely  divided  matter,  which  causes  the  circulation  of 
matter  still  more  subtile  around  these  centres.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  it  was,  wise  to  preserve  the 
orthodox  immobility  of  the  earth,  in  order  to  avoid 
persecution ;  therefore  the  vortex  embraced  the  sun, 
and  the  planets  circulated  around  our  earth.  The 
subtile  matter  of  this  first  vortex  constituted  Des- 
cartes' first  dement,  He  imagined  a  second  element 
like  the  first,  but  in  which  the  molecules  were  round ; 
finally,  a  third  element,  formed  of  molecules  furrowed 
with  canals,  through  which  molecules  of  the  other 
two  elements  could  circulate  in  all  directions!  If 
Descartes  in  his  theory  of  vortices  had  had  the  key  to 
the  system  of  the  world,  he  would  not  have  failed  to 
prove  it  by  calculations,  as  Newton  did  with  his 

66 


DESCARTES 

theory  of  gravitation ;  but  he  was  contented  to  rest 
satisfied  with  vain  conjectures.  It  is  often  said  that 
Descartes  had  created  Newton.  So  far  as  Geometry 
is  concerned,  it  is  undoubtedly  true;  but  if  experi- 
mental philosophy  is  spoken  of,  it  is  absolutely  false. 
In  Descartes'  celebrated  "  Discours  sur  la  methods 
pour  bien  conduire  sa  raison  et  chercher  la  verite 
dans  la  science,"  and  in  the  "Meditations  touchant 
la  premiere  philosophic  ou  Fon  demontre  Pexistence 
de  Dieu  et  Pimmortalite  cle  Tame,"  he  started  with 
the  fundamental  maxim :  "  In  order  to  attain  to  the 
truth,  one  must  strip  oneself  of  all  the  opinions  that 
one  has  received,  and  reconstruct  anew  the  founda- 
tions of  the  whole  system  of  one's  knowledge." 
Obedient  thereto,  he  stripped  himself  of  belief  in  the 
testimony  of  the  senses,  the  existence  of  the  body, 
of  himself,  and  even  of  God,  and  reduced  his  sci- 
ence to  the  single  fact,  the  single  proposition,  the 
only  evidence  for  him:  "Cogito  ergo  sum"  (I  think, 
therefore  I  am).  From  the  certitude  to  him  of  the 
mind,  or  of  thought,  Descartes  passed  suddenly  to 
the  certitude  of  the  existence  of  God,  by  means  of 
the  axiom  in  Logic,  which  he  transformed  into  a 
metaphysical  principle :  "  The  mind  can  affirm  of  a 
thing  all  that  is  contained  in  the  idea  of  a  thing." 
This  certitude  became  for  him  the  base  and  the  guar- 

67 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

antee  of  the  human  reason  in  all  the  acts  which  form 
the  special  domain  of  human  intelligence. 

Descartes  arrives  thus  at  the  proof  of  the  existence 
of  God :  "  We  find  that  all  our  ideas  of  limits,  of 
sorrows  and  of  weaknesses,  presuppose  an  infinite, 
perfect  and  ever-blessed  something,  beyond  and  in- 
cluding them;  that  all  our  ideas  converge  to  one  cen- 
tral idea,  in  which  they  find  their  explanation.  The 
formal  fact  of  thinking  is  what  constitute  our  being ; 
but  this  thought  of  which  we  are  certain  leads  us 
back  to  the  necessary  pre-supposition  on  which  our 
ideas  depend — the  ultimate  totality,  in  which  they 
are  all  reconciled ;  the  permanent  cause  on  which 
they  and  we,  as  conscious  beings,  depend.  We  have, 
therefore,  the  idea  of  an  infinite,  perfect  and  all- 
powerful  being,  which  cannot  be  the  creation  of  our- 
selves, and  must  be  given  by  some  being  who  really 
possesses  all  that  we  in  idea  attribute  to  him."  Such 
a  being  he  identified  with  God.  But  thus  far  Des- 
cartes was  confined  within  the  sphere  of  his  own  ideas. 
From  this  embarrassment  he  escaped  by  invoking 
the  veracity  of  God.  He  invoked  it  as  the  support 
of  the  testimony  of  the  senses,  which  no  longer  ap- 
peared to  him  doubtful.  "Now  that  I  know  myself," 
he  says,  "and  that  I  know  God,  I  have  not  the  same 
reason  to  doubt.  All  that  nature  teaches  (and  by 
nature  I  mean  God,  or  the  order  and  disposition  that 

68 


DESCARTES 

God  has  placed  in  the  things  created)  contains  some 
Truth.  I  recognize  in  myself  various  faculties  of 
thinking :  that  of  conceiving  (which  belongs  only  to 
my  mind) ;  that  of  feeling,  and  that  of  imagining, 
which  is  only  the  application  of  the  faculty  that  con- 
ceives to  the  body  that  is  present,  and  consequently 
that  exists.  Material  things,  then,  do  exist,  and  the 
impressions  received  by  the  senses  and  transmitted  to 
the  soul,  which  examines  and  judges  them,  are  not 
pure  illusions."  Thus  he  reconstructed  the  entire 
edifice  of  human  cognizance,  after  having  destroyed 
it  to  its  very  base. 

The  influence  that  Descartes'  writings  exercised 
over  Europe  was  widespread;  it  was  rapid  and 
almost  universal  and  greatest  among  the  most  cul- 
tivated and  liberal-minded.  Bossuet,  Fenelon,  Male- 
branche,  the  writers  who  constituted  the  celebrated 
School  of  Port -Royal,  the  leading  members  of  the 
"  Oratoire,"  adopted  Cartesianism.  Pascal  borrowed 
from  it  the  spirit  of  discussion  which  we  admire  in 
the  "Provincial  Letters."  The  Jesuits  gave  their 
adherence  later.  The  University  surrendered  only 
in  part  and  at  the  last  extremity. 

The  great  sensation  which  Descartes  caused  in  all 
minds  could  not  fail  to  arm  against  him  the  jealousy, 
ignorance  and  superstition  of  many  men.  They  de- 
cried a  man  who  attempted  to  demonstrate  the  exist- 

69 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

ence  of  God,  the  immateriality  of  the  soul,  the  origin 
and  certitude  of  our  knowledge,  otherwise  than  had 
been  done  before  him  ;  who  worked  on  a  mechanical 
and  general  explication  of  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
A  man,  finally,  who  attacked  boldly  the  Scholastic 
Philosophy,  would  naturally  alarm  those  who  lived 
in  estate  or  reputation  by  teaching  all  that  he  over- 
turned. The  Roman  Catholics  took  no  active  part 
against  him,  though  a  decree  of  the  congregation  of 
Cardinals  in  Rome,  in  1643,  forbade  the  faithful  to 
read  or  to  possess  either  these  or  any  other  books  of 
the  French  Philosophers.  In  Holland,  though  he 
had  many  advisers  and  warm  friends,  there  were 
many  hostile  to  him.  Among  the  professors  of 
Theology  in  the  Reformed  Churches  he  had  vio- 
lent enemies.  They  accused  him  of  impiety  and 
atheism,  and  would  have  had  him  expelled  from  the 
country,  had  he  not  applied  to  the  Ambassador  of 
France,  who  hastened  to  address  himself  to  the 
Prince  of  Orange,  and  succeeded  in  quenching  the 
disturbance. 

Descartes  found  that  his  metaphysical  theories,  to 
which  he  attached  the  greatest  value,  brought  him 
incessant  quarrels  and  troubles.  He  regretted  the 
loss  of  the  peace  and  quietness  in  which  he  had  lived. 
The  celebrity  he  had  obtained  brought  him  no 
equivalent  therefor,  and  he  wished  he  had  never 

70 


DESCARTES 

published  his  views.  In  this  frame  of  mind,  Chris- 
tine, Queen  of  Sweden,  offered  him  a  retreat  by 
giving  him  a  place  in  her  Court.  This  he  accepted. 
She  was  very  kind  to  him,  and  the  honor  of  being 
sought  after  by  a  great  Queen  served  to  confound  his 
persecutors.  But  the  change  in  his  mode  of  life  and 
the  early  hours  of  rising,  to  which  he  was  not  accus- 
tomed, affected  his  health.  Always  very  delicate,  he 
was  seized  with  an  affection  of  the  throat,  and  died 
February  11,  1650,  aged  fiifty-four  years.* 

*  J.  B.  Biot,  et  Feuillot  De  Conches,  Biographic  Universelle,  1855. 

71 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    WRITERS    WHO   WITH    DESCARTES  GAVE   RISE 
TO   THE  CARTESIAN   PHILOSOPHY. 

A  GREAT  and  original  thinker  has  always  among 
the  brightest  of  his  disciples,  some,  who  whilst  accept- 
ing much  of  the  new  doctrine,  add  to  or  modify  it 
so  as  to  change  even  its  most  prominent  features. 
In  this  manner  at  first  BARUCH  (or  Benedict) 
SPINOZA  (1632-1677),  in  one  direction,  and  later 
NICHOLAS  MALEBRANCHE  (1638-1715)  in  the  other, 
changed  and  yet  confirmed  in  its  essentials  the  teach- 
ing of  Descartes,  giving  rise  to  what  is  now  called 
Cartesianism.  Descartes'  Metaphysics  seemed  often 
to  hang  over  the  edge  of  Pantheism,  yet  always  drew 
back  and  avoided  it.  No  doubt  the  fear  of  the  results 
that  might  be  expected  at  the  hands  of  the  theolo- 
gians kept  him  on  the  safer  side.  Spinoza  had  no 
such  fear.  A  Hebrew  by  birth  and  education,  he 
was  born  with  an  investigating  mind  ;  he  took  pleas- 

72 


SPINOZA 

ure  in  asking  questions  that  the  most  learned  Rabbi 
could  not  answer.  He  began  to  study  the  Talmud 
and  the  Bible  in  solitude,  and  to  meditate  over 
their  contents.  The  comments  that  he  made  when 
conversing  with  his  friends  drew  the  attention  and 
the  censures  of  the  chief  men  of  the  synagogue, 
who  required  him  to  withdraw  from  their  assembly. 
He  then  at  first  preferred  the  society  and  belief  of 
Christians,  but  soon  retired  to  his  own  meditations, 
to  which  the  works  of  Descartes  gave  new  occupation. 
As  he  advanced  in  Philosophy  he  gave  up  more  and 
more  the  faith  of  his  Fathers,  and  forsook  the 
Synagogue  forever,  abandoning  even  all  intercourse 
with  the  Jews.  He  supported  himself  by  working 
on  and  grinding  lenses,  and  lived  in  the  most  retired 
and  abstemious  manner.  His  health  had  always 
been  delicate,  and  he  was  physically  weak.  He  died 
very  suddenly  in  his  46th  year. 

According  to  the  doctrine  of  Spinoza,  "The  illu- 
sion of  the  finite,  the  illusions  of  sense,  imagination 
and  passion,  which  raise  the  individual's  life,  even  the 
present  moment  of  the  individual  life,  with  its  pass- 
ing feelings,  into  the  standard  for  measuring  the  uni- 
verse, is  the  source  of  all  evil  and  error  to  men." 
"  On  the  other  hand,  his  highest  good  is  to  view  all 
things  from  their  centre  in  God,  and  to  be  moved 
only  by  the  passion  for  good  in  general — the  intel- 

73 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

lectual  love  of  God.*  The  basis  around  which  his 
conceptions  all  turn  are  the  substance  with  its  attri- 
butes and  modifications.  By  substance  he  under- 
stands whatever  is,  is  in  itself,  and  can  be  appre- 
hended in  itself;  that  is,  whose  apprehension  does  not 
require  the  comprehension  of  something  else  of  which 
it  must  be  formed.  This  corresponds  to  the  axiom : 
"Everything  that  is,  is  either  in  itself,  or  in  another; 
that  which  cannot  be  comprehended  through  some- 
thing else  must  be  apprehended  in  itself."  f  With  the 
idea  of  substance  is  united  the  idea  of  the  cause 
thereof.  By  the  latter  he  understands  that  essential 
which  includes  existence  in  itself,  or  that,  whose 
nature  cannot  be  thought  of  otherwise  than  as  exist- 
ing. The  idea  of  substance  is  complemented  by  the 
characteristics  of  infinite  existence,  and  of  exclusive 
existence.  For  he  asserts  (first)  the  substance  must 
be  infinite ;  (second)  that  there  can  be  but  one  sub- 
stance. In  regard  to  the  first  a  Scholium  says : 
"  Since  the  finite  is  a  partial  negation,  while  the  in- 
finite is  an  unqualified  affirmation  of  existence,  it  fol- 
lows from  what  has  been  shown  that  the  substance, 


*Enc.  Brit.,  9th  Edit.    Art.  Cartesianism. 

f  "Alles  was  1st,  its  entweder  in  sich  oder  in  einem  andern.  Was 
nicht  durch  ein  anderes  begriffen  werden  kann,  muss  durch  sich 
selbst  begriffen  werden."  (J.  Meyer,  Kons,  Lex'n,  Bd.  39— S.  1104- 
Spinoza. 

74 


SPINOZA 

coming  by  its  own  essence  into  existence,  must  be 
eternal."  * 

From  the  last  quoted  sentence  he  derives  directly 
his  doctrine  of  God :  "  God  is  to  him  the  absolute, 
infinite  Being,  or  the  substance  consisting  of  infinite 
attributes,  of  which  attributes  each  expresses  eternal 
and  infinite  existence."  To  Spinoza,  God  is  the  think- 
ing and  extended  substance.  In  explanation,  he 
says:  "One  must  not  think  the  epitheton  of  infinity 
(unendlich)  is  withdrawn,  but  the  relation  is  as  fol- 
lows :  We  dare  not  say  that  the  extended  substance  is 
unworthy  of  the  nature  of  God.  Mobility  and  motion 
are  ascribed  to  it.  It  is  active,  efficient,  energetic, 
living,  engaged  incessantly  in  producing  and  chang- 
ing. To  the  substance,  so  far  as  it  has  extension,  is 
ascribed,  not  the  quiet  of  death,  but  unconditional 
activity."  Everything  impressed  Spinoza  as  exert- 
ing force,  everything  was  animated.  Compound  sub- 
stance was  regarded  as  a  dynamical  whole.  The 
doctrine  that  everything  is  animated  and  alive  is 
essentially  peculiar  to  Spinoza. 

From  the  second  attribute  of  God — Thought — all 
is  excluded  that  belongs  to  man's  existence.  Every 
trace  of  anthropomorphism  vanishes  utterly,  God 

*  Da  das  endliche  ein  theilweise  Negation,  das  Unendliche  dagegen, 
eine  unbedingte  Affirmation  der  Existence  ist,  so  folgt  schon  aus  dem 
Satze,  das  der  Substance  ihren  wesen  nach,  Existence  zukomnt,  dass 
sie  unendlich  sey.  (Ibid.) 

75 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

does  not  need  from  us  that  we  should  ascribe  to 
Him  the  properties  that  belong  to  the  utmost  superi- 
ority, even  to  the  perfection,  of  the  human  nature. 
For-  that  reason  understanding  and  will  are  denied. 
Thought,  as  an  attribute  of  God,  does  not  include  the 
presentation  of  the  idea  in  itself,  but  it  designates 
only  the  possibility  of  bringing  forth  ideas.  Thought, 
therefore,  is  as  much  as  the  capacity  of  thinking. 
Ideas  belong  to  God  only  so  far  as  He  is  thought  of 
as  the  Intellectus  (Understanding);  but  the  Intellectus 
itself  is  subordinate  to  the  absolute  thought.  God  is 
called  the  free  cause  (Causa  Libera) ;  but  that  means 
only  that  there  is  nothing  beyond  himself  by  which 
he  can  be  compelled  to  action.  Since  he  is  the  only 
substance,  so  he  acts  solely  according  to  the  laws  of 
his  own  nature.  Free  will  or  spontaneity  in  the 
ordinary  meaning  of  the  words  (meaning  a  choice — a 
rejection  of  the  one  and  the  preference  for  another, 
or  an  absoluteness  and  sovereignty  which  from  two 
contradictory  and  opposed  things  can  bring  forth  the 
one  equally  as  well  as  the  other)  is  strongly  denied. 

This  action  of  the  will  is  denied  because  it  seems 
to  be  incompatible  with  the  idea  of  the  most  perfect 
Being.  "  God  acts  from  necessity  or  according  to 
necessary  laws.  From  the  infinite  nature  of  God 
follows  all  that  is  infinite  in  an  endless  manner  and 
forever  with  like  necessity;  exactly  as  from  the 

76 


SPINOZA 

nature  of  a  triangle  it  follows  from  Eternity,  through 
Eternity,  that  its  three  angles  will  equal  two  right 
angles. 

"  From  like  reasoning  he  rejects  the  theory  of  a 
purpose  (Teleology),  and  that  God  works  all  things 
with  reference  to  the  good  (sub  ratione  boni).  That 
which  is  done  is  good,  indeed  absolutely  good,  because 
the  nature  of  an  all  perfect  Being  brings  this  with  it  of 
itself,  but  not  because  this  Being  had  either  first  made 
a  resolution  that  it  all  must  be  good,  or  because  the 
good  presents  itself  to  him  as  an  ideal  that  he  must 
follow."  In  a  similar  course  of  reasoning  he  with- 
draws the  love  of  man  from  God,  and  the  desire  that 
man  should  love  Him.  Spinoza  thus,  after  identify- 
ing God  with,  and  as  existing  in,  the  nature  of  man 
and  the  material  world,  ultimately,  through  his  rea- 
soning, withdraws  nearly  all  attributes  from  him, 
so  that  little  more  is  left  than  the  vague,  indistinct 
idea  of  an  eternal,  infinite,  intelligent  existence. 

NICHOLAS  MALEBRANCHE  (son  of  a  Secretary  of 
Louis  XIII.  and  treasurer  of  a  large  part  of  the  royal 
revenues)  was  born  6th  of  August,  1638.  A  certain 
malformation  from  his  birth  that  entailed  continued 
ill-health  obliged  his  parents  to  give  him  a  domestic 
education  until  he  was  able  to  enter  a  course  of  Phil- 
osophy, from  which  he  passed  to  the  Sorbonne  to 
pursue  his  theological  studies.  His  taste  for  retire- 

77 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

ment  and  study  led  him  to  join  the  congregation  of 
the  Oratoire.  Occupying  himself  there  for  some 
time  with  ecclesiastical  history,  with  Greek  and  He- 
brew literature,  he  met  accidentally  with  the  "  Traite 
des  Hommes  "  of  Descartes.  He  was  struck  with  the 
new  views  of  science  thus  opened  to  him,  and  read  it 
and  the  other  works  of  Descartes  with  so  much  eager- 
ness, that  he  thought  he  would  be  able  to  reproduce 
them  from  his  own  mind  if  they  should  ever  be  lost. 

In  1674  he  published  his  "  Recherche  de  la  Verite." 
The  general  aim  of  this  work,  as  well  as  of  others 
that  he  published  later,  was  to  show  the  accord  of  the 
Philosophy  of  Descartes  with  Religion.  Descartes 
had  given  a  far  more  luminous  explanation  of  the 
union  of  the  mind  and  body  than  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors. Malebranche  expanded  Descartes'  ideas  in 
regard  to  the  union  which  we  have  with  the  bodies 
that  surround  us,  and  of  the  mind  with  God.  When 
investigating  the  nature  of  the  mind,  Malebranche, 
who  believed  in  the  impossibility  of  a  direct  com- 
munication between  mind  and  body,  strove  to  show 
that  the  thoughts  of  the  mind  cannot  be  the  physical 
cause  of  the  movement  of  the  body,  nor  the  move- 
ments of  the  body  the  physical  cause  of  the  thoughts 
of  the  mind,  because  there  are  no  points  of  contact 
between  the  two  substances.  All  that  takes  place  is 
in  virtue  of  the  general  law  that  God  has  instituted  : 

78 


MALEBRANCHE 

to  excite  in  our  minds  certain  thoughts,  when  the 
movement  produced  in  our  organs  by  contact  with 
foreign  bodies  will  be  communicated  to  certain  parts 
of  our  brain.  Thence  it  follows  that  God  alone  is 
the  cause  of  all  the  movements  of  our  body,  and 
of  all  the  affections  of  our  mind,  and  that  He  only, 
speaking  absolutely,  can  render  us  happy  or  un- 
happy. 

The  doctrine  to  which  the  name  of  Malebranche 
is  attached  is  that  by  which  man  sees  all  in  God, 
and  that  it  is  God  alone  that  acts  in  him.  It  has 
thus  liens  uniting  it  with  Spinoza's  pantheism, 
which  considers  that  all  in  the  world  moves  by  neces- 
sity from  the  nature  of  God,  in  whom  he  sees  only 
the  general  and  the  absolute.  This  is  in  reality 
the  theory  of  St.  Augustine,  who  perceives  in  God 
only  that  which  is  unchangeable,  and  which  modern 
Philosophy  calls  necessitarianism.  Malebranche's 
doctrine  is  equivalent  to  a  negation  of  free  will. 
Man  is  an  automaton ;  the  fall  of  man — original 
sin — conferred  on  him  the  liberty  of  committing  evil, 
and  this  liberty  is  man's  punishment.  As  to  the 
animals  it  is  entirely  different.  Having  neither  in- 
telligence nor  will,  they  do  not  know  what  evil  is. 

In  accordance  with  Malebranche's  necessitarian 
doctrine,  he  was  led  to  deny  individual  providence 
and  even  all  finite  existence.  It  is  not  conformable 

79 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

to  the  nature  of  God  to  act  by  any  but  universal 
laws,  and  these  universal  laws  necessarily  involve 
particular  evil  consequences,  though  their  ultimate 
result  is  the  highest  possible  good. 

Malebranche  avoided  discussing  the  astronomical 
and  physical  theories  of  either  the  Ptolemaic  or-  the 
Copernican  system,  as  well  as  any  other  question  that 
would  force  him  into  a  denial  of  the  established  Aris- 
totelian theories  of  the  Church.  He  escaped,  there- 
fore, all  persecution,  though  his  denial  of  particular 
providences  constantly  involved  him  in  disputes  with 
Arnauld,  with  Bossuet  and  with  others.  He  died  in 
1715,  aged  77  years. 

The  theories  of  Descartes,  Malebranche  and 
Spinoza,  differing,  as  shown  above,  in  important 
detail,  yet  all  having  the  same  general  foundation, 
constituted  the  Cartesian  Philosophy.  Its  principles, 
held  with  various  modifications,  were  in  the  thoughts 
of  the  greatest  minds  of  the  time;  and  the  philos- 
ophy of  Leibnitz,  Locke,  Condi  1  lac  and  others, 
though  they  were  not  within  the  Cartesian  fold,  drew 
much  from  its  doctrines.  Its  practical  and  permanent 
benefits  to  its  age  and  ours  were  rather  in  its  destruc- 
tive action  upon  the  existing  errors  of  its  time  than 
(apart  from  the  discoveries  in  Mathematics)  the 
creation  of  new  thoughts  or  knowledge.  It  was  pre- 
ceded in  date  by  the  writings  of  Eamus,  Talezius, 

80 


DEDUCTIVE   PHILOSOPHY 

Patrizi,  Campanella  and  others,  all  violently  oppos- 
ing the  Aristotelian  Philosophy.  But  they  destroyed 
their  influence  by  trying  to  substitute  the  theories  of 
Parmenides,  (504  B.  c.)  of  Plato,  or  ideas  of  their  own, 
equally  unreal  and  false.  To  Cartesian  ism  is  mainly 
due  the  rejection  of  authority  in  scientific  investi- 
gation— the  downfall  of  the  Aristotelian  Philosophy, 
and  the  insistance  on  doubt  and  distrust  of  all  tradi- 
tion or  accepted  belief,  axioms,  or  dogmatic  teaching 
in  philosophy  and  science,  until  satisfactory  proof  be 
given  to  the  mind  of  their  existence  and  truth. 

The  Deductive  Philosophy  had  for  its  principle 
the  belief  that  the  human  mind  was  capable,  by 
reflecting  upon  its  own  thoughts,  of  recognizing  cer- 
tain axioms  or  incontrovertible  truths  which  it  was 
believed  necessarily  existed,  and  which,  being  in 
the  mind,  were  therefore  in  nature.  From  these 
a-priori  cognitions,  such  as  the  scholastic  doctrine  of 
the  Universals,  Descartes'  "  Cogito  ergo  sum,"  or 
Spinoza's  idea  of  substance,  there  could  logically 
be  deduced  conclusions  that  it  was  difficult  to  refute. 
Indeed,  it  would  be  impossible  consistently  to  refute 
them  were  it  not  that  from  the  same  premises  con- 
clusions equally  logical,  but  diametrically  the  opposite, 
might  be  reached  by  varying  the  point  or  line  of 
departure.  The  mind,  thus  occupied  by  its  own 
thoughts  only,  could  not  increase  its  sum  of  knowl- 
6  81 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

edge  from  the  material  world.  Phenomena,  they 
thought,  could  best  be  explained  by  reference  to  gen- 
eral principles,  or  axioms,  such  as  that  "Nature 
abhors  a  vacuum  "  to  account  for  water  ascending  a 
tube  when  the  air  is  exhausted  within  it ;  that  a 
flame  or  heated  air  ascends,  owing  to  the  principle  of 
levity;  that  the  sun  would  breed  maggots  in  a  dead 
dog,  for  it  was  the  nature  of  the  sun  to  do  so,  etc.  For 
the  better  study  of  his  own  mind,  Descartes  early 
refused  to  read  any  more  books.  His  aim  was  not 
to  learn,  but  to  think.  Even  so  late  as  the  time  of 
Cowper  it  was  believed  to  be  wiser  to  think  than  to 
learn.  He  wrote: 

"  Knowledge  and  Wisdom,  far  from  being  one, 
Have  ofltimes  no  resemblance. 

Knowledge  dwells  in  heads  replete  with  thoughts  of  other  men, 
Wisdom  in  minds  attentive  to  their  own."  * 

In  the  early  days,  before  the  Renaissance,  nearly 
all  learning  had  died  out  in  Christian  Europe,  and 
that  which  later  was  resuscitated  into  being  had 
been  kept  from  death  by  the  Arabs  only,  and  was 
warmed  into  new  life  by  the  Moors  in  Cordova.  All 
Christendom  was  ignorant,  and  only  the  "  Clericus  " 
could  read.  The  most  learned  monasteries  possessed 
only  two  or  three  of  the  works  of  Aristotle  out  of  the 
many  later  recovered,  and  few  or  none  of  the  Monks 

*  Cowper.    The  Task.     Book  VI. 
82 


DEDUCTIVE  PHILOSOPHY 

throughout  the  land  could  read  Greek.  It  was  then 
both  natural  and  right  that  all  should  look  back  to 
the  books  of  antiquity  as  to  a  treasure-house  in 
which  was  kept  priceless  wealth  of  wisdom,  without 
which  they  would  be  no  better  than  the  serfs  and 
slaves  around  them.  Learning  then  consisted  in 
trying  to  understand  the  ideas  of  those  who  had 
lived,  thought  and  written  a  thousand  or  fifteen 
hundred  years  before.  To  improve  upon  that 
thought  was  absurd,  if  not  in  fact  sinful.  To  think 
as  Plato  and  Aristotle  thought,  and  to  look  upon  the 
world  and  its  contents  as  Aristotle  had  done,  was 
with  the  monks  and  with  the  scholastics  the  very 
essence  and  truth  of  Philosophy.  To  such  men  the 
only  philosophy  known  was  the  deductive.  It  is  so 
to-day  with  those  whose  training  is  only  in  classical 
learning,  or  whose  profession  or  practice  obliges  them 
to  depend  largely  upon  established  precedent  and 
to  rely  upon  authority  in  the  past,  for  their  reason 
and  motive  for  action  in  the  present. 

We  have  now  to  leave  the  realm  of  the  pure  sub- 
jective and  deductive  philosophy  to  which  Leibnitz, 
Locke,  Hegel,  Schelling,  Kant  and  others  have  added 
the  labor  of  their  lives, and  turn  to  the  school  of  the 
inductive  philosophy  that  has  opened  to  us  our  insight 
into  the  real  infinitude  of  knowledge. 

83 


CHAPTER  VIII 

SIB  FRANCIS  BACON — THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  IN- 
DUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY  AND  THE  SCIENTIFIC 
INVESTIGATION  OF  NATURE. 

FRANCIS  BACON,  Viscount  St.  Albans  and  Baron 
VeruJam,  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England  (1561- 
1626)  was  born  in  London.  His  father  was  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  a  zealous  Protestant,  for  twenty 
years  keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  and  one  of  the  Com- 
missioners appointed  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  take 
cognizance  of  the  charges  made  against  Mary  Stuart 
by  the  Scots. 

His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke, 
formerly  tutor  to  Edward  VI.  She  was  (as  mothers 
of  great  men  generally  have  been)  a  woman  of  ex- 
cellent mind.  She  was  learned  in  many  ways ;  had 
translated  and  published  from  the  Italian  the  Ser- 
mons of  Ochine,  and  from  the  Latin  those  of  Jewel. 
She  possessed  true  piety  and  all  the  feminine  virtues. 
Her  sons,  Anthony  and  Francis,  received  their  early 
education  at  her  hands  alone.  One  of  her  sisters  was 

34 


FRANCIS  BACON 


the  wife  of  the  celebrated  Lord  Burleigh.  Francis 
Bacon,  the  youngest  of  three  sons,  was  kept  in  his 
early  years  much  at  home,  his  health  being  always 
delicate.  At  thirteen  years  he  was  sent  to  Cam- 
bridge, where  his  rapid  progress  astonished  his 
Masters.  He  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age  when  he 
wrote  an  essay  to  combat  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
which  he  saw  was  better  fitted  to  produce  and  per- 
petuate dispute  than  it  was  to  enlighten  the  mind. 
At  the  age  of  nineteen  he  had  traveled  through 
much  of  France,  and  spent  some  time  at  the  Court  in 
Paris,  where  he  published  an  essay  on  "  The  State  of 
Europe"  that  showed  surprising  evidence  of  his 
maturity  of  judgment. 

On  the  death  of  his  father  in  1579  he  was  recalled 
to  England,  and  the  narrowness  of  his  estate  forced 
him  to  look  for  an  employment  suitable  to  his  birth 
and  position.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
jurisprudence  with  such  ardor  and  success  that  by  the 
time  he  was  twenty-eight  years  old  he  was  made 
Counsel  Extraordinary  to  the  Queen.  It  is  out  of 
our  province  to  follow  the  political  positions  of 
Bacon,  or  to  dwell  upon  the  transactions  in  his  life 
that  caused  him  to  be  charged  with  ingratitude  to 
Essex,  his  former  friend  and  patron  ;  his  venality  in 
office,  or  the  abuses  committed  whilst  holding  his 
appointment  under  the  Great  Seal.  For  these  he 

85 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

was  imprisoned,  heavily  fined  and  disgraced.  The 
penalties  were  remitted,  and  his  imprisonment  was  for 
a  short  time  only.  Much  has  been  written  in  pallia- 
tion of  the  confessed  charges  of  corruption.  It  is 
pretty  well  shown  that  Essex  was  guilty  of  the 
political  crimes  for  which  he  suffered  ;  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  find  a  reasonable  excuse  for  the  active  part 
that  Bacon  took  in  his  conviction,  or  to  see  that  it 
was  other  than  a  selfish  care  for  his  own  interest  that 
prompted  it. 

It  is  a  relief  to  turn  from  the  actions  of  the  politi- 
cian to  the  writings  of  the  man  of  science.  Macau- 
lay  rightly  says :  "  The  chief  peculiarity  of  Bacon's 
philosophy  is  that  it  aimed  at  things  altogether  differ- 
ent from  those  which  his  predecessors  had  proposed 
to  themselves.  .  .  .  The  ancient  philosophers  did  not 
entirely  neglect  natural  science,  but  they  cultivated  it 
solely  because  it  tended  to  raise  the  mind  above  low 
cares  and  to  exercise  its  subtlety  in  the  solution  of 
very  obscure  questions.  .  .  .  Bacon,  on  the  other 
hand,  valued  this  branch  of  knowledge,  only  on  ac- 
count of  its  use  with  reference  to  that  visible  and 
tangible  world  which  Plato  and  others  so  much  de- 
spised. .  .  .  Bacon  was  not  the  inventor  of  the  induc- 
tive method.  He  was  not  the  person  who  first  showed 
that  by  the  inductive  method  alone  new  truth  could 
be  discovered  ;  but  he  was  the  person  who  first  turned 

86 


SIR  FRANCIS  BACON 

the  minds  of  speculative  men,  long  occupied  in  verbal 
disputes,  to  the  discovery  of  new  and  useful  truths. 
By  so  doing  he  at  once  gave  to  the  inductive  method 
an  importance  and  dignity  which  had  never  before 
belonged  to  it." 

Bacon's  two  great  works  are  the  "  De  Dignitate  et 
Augmentis  Scientiarum  "  and  the  "  Novum  Organum 
Scientiarum,"  in  which  he  proposed  to  substitute  Induc- 
tion for  the  syllogism  that  the  scholastics  had  so  long 
used  and  abused.  He  maintained  that  the  only  way 
to  arrive  at  the  verities  in  nature  is  to  observe  and 
study  nature,  not  only  in  the  phenomena  that  present 
themselves  to  our  notice,  but  in  those  that  we  are  able 
to  discover  by  the  way  of  experimentation.  It  is  not 
sufficient  only  to  have  eyes  to  perceive ;  it  needs  an 
art  to  direct  the  observations;  it  needs  one  still  more 
difficult  rightly  to  interrogate  nature.  To  arrive  at 
this  double  goal  he  created  methods  for  which  he 
makes  rules  without  number  to  be  used  in  all  the 
pursuits  of  science. 

In  the  method  of  investigation  contained  in  the 
"  Novum  Organum  "  and  other  works  of  Bacon  no 
reference  is  made  to  the  necessary  use  of  deduction. 
He  was  so  anxious  to  decry  the  old  philosophy  of 
scholasticism  and  to  substitute  for  it  the  new  induc- 
tion that  he  lost  sight  of  the  fact  that  it  was  the  long 
perverted  a-priori  reasoning  from  inadequate  premises 

87 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

arbitrarily  assumed,  and  the  dependence  solely  thereon, 
that  produced  the  infructuous  learning  then  existing. 
Bacon  himself  made  little  or  no  practical  application 
of  his  method.  Had  he  done  so  he  would  necessarily 
have  modified  the  procedure  recommended.  By  ex- 
cluding absolutely  all  deduction  he  deprived  himself 
of  the  use  of  Hypothesis,  the  judicious  employment 
whereof  is  indispensable  to  scientific  investigation. 
Bacon's  aim,  as  he  repeatedly  stated,  was  to  benefit 
mankind  by  searching  out  and  revealing  the  proper- 
ties and  phenomena  of  nature.  The  rules  he  laid 
down  for  guidance  have  not  proved  as  serviceable  as 
he  had  conceived  they  would  be,  and  the  search  for 
the  essences,  which  he  considered  the  ultimate  cause 
of  phenomena,  has  been  abandoned.  But  he  suc- 
ceeded in  awakening  all  men  to  the  observation  of 
the  world  around  them,  and  to  the  supreme  dignity 
of  the  study  thereof. 

The  principles  of  the  inductive  method  as  now 
recognized  consist — (1st)  In  a  careful  and  systematic 
observation  of  the  phenomena  or  characteristics  pre- 
sented by  the  substance  or  the  thought  under  consid- 
eration. (2d)  In  submitting  the  substance  or  the 
phenomena  to  variable  conditions,  artificially  pro- 
duced, or  obtained  naturally  by  watching  for  and 
varying  the  time  or  circumstances  existing.  (3d) 
In  comparing  the  results  obtained  in  (1)  or  (2)  with 

88 


INDUCTIVE  PHILOSOPHY 

other  substances  or  phenomena  that  have  greater  or 
less  similarity  with  those  in  question  ;  determining  and 
noting  the  points  of  similarity  or  of  difference,  and 
repeating  the  observations  indefinitely  until  a  large 
number  of  data  are  obtained  sufficiently  great  to 
admit  of  classification.  The  phenomena  common  to 
or  in  certain  groups  can  thus  be  shown  to  be  dependent 
upon  causes  or  phenomena  back  of  them  again ;  and 
thus  continuing  to  rise  from  individual  phenomena 
to  those  of  higher  generalization,  and  still  higher  as 
observation  or  experiment  may  furnish  material  or 
occasion,  until  the  cause  nearest  to  the  ultimate  cause 
may  be  reached.  In  this  proceeding  a  certain  amount 
of  deductive  reasoning  is  frequently  involved.  Causes 
or  conditions  have  often  to  be  assumed,  from  which 
deductions  may  be  made  in  order  to  test  the  existence 
or  correctness  of  other  conditions  or  phenomena  that 
should  be  present,  if  the  true  theories  or  causes  sought 
for  agree  substantially  with  those  that  were  assumed. 
This  assumption  is  an  Hypothesis. 

Bacon's  mathematical  knowledge  was  not  of  a 
very' high  order.  He  stood  far  behind  Descartes, 
Kepler  and  Galileo.  It  was  his  comparative  igno- 
rance as  a  mathematician  that  prevented  him  from 
appreciating  the  great  discoveries  of  the  latter.  He 
never  accepted  the  Copernican  system  of  Astronomy. 
He  could  not  conceive  the  possibility  of  the  move- 

89 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

ment  of  the  earth  around  the  Sun,  which  he  ridiculed 
as  being  an  utter  absurdity. 

The  methods  of  induction  first  formalized  by  Bacon 
have  been  practiced  unconsciously  by  thousands  of 
persons  without  reference  to  his  rules  and  without 
knowledge  thereof.  In  like  manner,  before  his  day, 
the  greatest  minds  at  times  employed  it  necessarily, 
seeking  through  it  the  light  of  truth  and  in  studying 
the  works  of  God. 

Bacon,  as  it  has  been  stated,  had  made  no  practical 
application  of  the  rules  for  investigation  that  he  had 
announced.  In  common  with  most  of  the  philoso- 
phers who  had  preceded  him,  he  made  few,  if  any, 
observations  of  natural  phenomena.  They  preferred 
to  theorize  as  to  the  causes  of  the  facts  they  consid- 
ered established,  rather  than  to  verify  their  correctness 
by  careful  research,  or  to  gather  new  facts  by  personal 
investigations.  The  implements  or  appliances  neces- 
sary for  such  work  in  many  instances  were  not  yet 
constructed.  The  beginning  of  science  waited  for 
the  men  who  would  watch  and  experiment.  The 
tools  wherewith  to  work  would  then  also  be  invented. 

90 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  OBSERVATIONS  OF  NATURE  AND  NATURAL 
PHENOMENA — GALILEO  GALILEI — HIS  LIFE  AND 
DISCOVERIES. 

GALILEO  GALILEI  (Galileo),  born  at  Pisa,  1564, 
died  near  Florence,  January  9,  1642,  was  the  son  of 
a  gentleman  of  noble  family,  though  impoverished. 
Being  one  of  a  number  of  children,  his  father  could 
give  him  but  poor  teachers ;  but  his  desire  to  learn 
made  him  apply  himself  with  such  assiduity  to  his 
classical  studies  that  he  acquired  the  knowledge  of  a 
solid  and  extensive  literature,  to  which  he  owed  the 
lucidity  of  his  discourse  and  the  elegance  of  his  writ- 
ings. He  early  showed  a  strong  liking  and  aptitude  for 
mechanical  inventions,  also  much  taste  and  facility  in 
drawing;  he  was  fond  of  music,  and  was  well  versed  in 
its  theory  and  practice.  When  he  was  eighteen  he  com- 
menced the  study  of  medicine,  which  his  father  thought 
would  procure  for  him  an  easy  and  honorable  livelihood. 
He  also  then  studied  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  In 
the  latter  he  could  not  accept  on  the  faith  of  another 

91 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

the  answers  to  questions  that  reason  and  experiment 
answered  otherwise,  nor  could  he  let  the  authority  of 
Aristotle  intervene  when  his  own  experience  was  a 
better  teacher.  He  boldly  defended  his  own  views 
and  combated  those  of  others,  so  that  he  acquired  the 
reputation  of  being  obstinate  and  contradictory. 

Before  he  was  twenty  years  old  he  made  the  first 
of  his  great  discoveries  by  observing  the  swinging 
of  the  large  lamp  suspended  from  the  vaulted  roof 
of  the  church.  He  noticed  that  its  oscillations  were 
made  in  equal  times,  whatever  might  be  their  length. 
He  remembered  the  fact  and  made  use  of  it  fifty 
years  later  in  the  construction  of  a  clock  for  astro- 
nomical observations.  As  yet  Galileo  knew  little 
about  mathematics.  His  father  feared  to  let  him 
study  therein,  lest  it  would  interfere  with  his  zeal  for 
that  of  medicine.  At  last,  after  long  persuasion,  his 
father  yielded  his  consent.  From  that  time  everything 
was  forsaken  for  the  new  study.  He  delighted  in  the 
demonstrations  that  put  him  in  possession  of  certain 
and  unquestionable  truth,  and  that  gave  strength 
and  method  to  his  mind. 

Finally  his  enthusiasm  and  the  progress  he  made 
was  so  great  that  he  was  permitted  to  give  up  medi- 
cine and  devote  himself  exclusively  to  mathematics. 
He  became  acquainted  with  the  Marquis  Guido 
Ubaldi,  a  cultivated  geometrician,  who  employed  him 

92 


GALILEO 

in  researches  on  the  centre  of  gravity  in  bodies.  His 
marvelous  facility  in  the  calculations  caused  him  to 
be  strongly  recommended  to  John  de  Medici  and  to 
the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand,  who  gave  him  the 
Chair  of  Mathematics  at  Pisa  when  he  was  scarcely 
twenty-five  years  old.  He  neglected  nothing  that 
could  serve  to  justify  his  elevation,  and  undertook  to 
establish  the  laws  of  motion  and  to  ascertain  the 
solid  basis  of  the  laws  of  nature,  not  by  hypothetical 
reasoning  such  as  had  always  heretofore  been  done  in 
all  schools,  but  by  actual  experiment.  He  showed 
that  all  bodies,  whatever  may  be  their  nature,  fall 
with  equal  rapidity  ;  whenever  there  appears  to  be  a 
difference  in  their  relative  speed  in  falling,  it  is  due 
to  the  greater  resistance  of  the  air  caused  by  a  greater 
extension  of  surface  in  the  one  body  than  in  the 
other. 

These  new  views  excited  the  animosity  of  the  old 
philosophers,  who  tried  all  in  their  power  to  annoy  and 
persecute  this  bold  innovator.  They  succeeded  in  ob- 
liging him  to  leave  the  chair  that  he  held  at  Pisa,  and 
to  return  to  Florence  without  any  employment.  He 
had  a  letter  from  Guido  Ubaldi  to  a  gentleman  of 
Florence  of  the  family  of  Salviati,  who  received  him 
with  great  kindness  and  enabled  him  to  continue  his 
discoveries  until  he  could  obtain  remunerative  em- 
ployment. One  of  Salviati's  friends,  a  Venetian 

93 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

named  Sagredo,  a  man  of  culture  and  of  high  stand- 
ing, obtained  for  the  young  mathematician  the  Chair 
of  that  Science  in  Padua  for  the  term  of  six  years. 
In  recognition  of  the  kindness,  Galileo  gave  their 
names  to  the  personages  in  his  dialogues  who  sus- 
stained  the  new  and  true  philosophy.  During  this 
time  he  invented  the  thermometer  and  made  some 
other  minor  inventions.  At  the  expiration  of  his 
term  at  the  University  the  Senate  again  elected  him 
to  a  second  period  of  six  years,  with  an  increased 
salary.  The  sudden  appearance  of  a  new  star  in  the 
constellation  Serpentarius  enabled  Galileo  to  demon- 
strate that  its  position  was  far  beyond  the  elementary 
sphere  in  which  alone — according  to  the  philosophy 
of  Aristotle — changes  of  any  kind  were  possible. 
In  1606  his  professorship  was  again  renewed. 

In  1609  it  was  rumored  that  the  Count  Maurice 
of  Nassau  had  been  presented  by  a  native  of  Middel- 
burg,  Holland,  with  an  instrument  that  made  distant 
objects  seem  to  be  much  closer  and  nearer  to  hand 
than  they  really  were.  This  was  all  that  he  could 
learn  about  the  instrument.  From  this  information 
Galileo  proceeded  to  ascertain  how  such  a  thing  was 
possible,  by  experimenting  with  spherical  glasses  in 
various  shapes.  After  some  attempts  with  such  as 
he  had  at  hand,  he  succeeded  in  his  efforts,  and  a  few 
days  after  presented  to  the  Senate  several  of  his  new 

94 


GALILEO 

instruments,  with  an  essay  showing  what  important 
consequences  must  result  therefrom  in  navigation  and 
astronomy.  This  was  the  invention  of  the  telescope. 
The  imperfect  arrangement  of  lenses  made  by  Lipper- 
shey,  of  which  Galileo  had  heard,  and  which  started 
him  on  his  own  experiments,  was  at  the  best  only  a 
spy-glass  or  field-glass,  and  was  fitted  only  for  such 
limited  uses.  Galileo  was  rewarded  by  the  appoint- 
ment for  life  to  the  professorship,  with  a  salary  three 
times  as  great  as  he  had  before  received.  Galileo 
soon  after  invented  the  microscope,  and  perfected  the 
telescope  so  that  it  might  be  turned  towards  the  sky. 
"  He  then  saw  what  no  mortal  had  seen  before  him — 
the  surface  of  the  moon,  like  a  land  furrowed  by 
mountains  and  deep  valleys;  the  planet  Venus  pre- 
senting itself  in  phases  that  proved  it  to  be  a  sphere ; 
Jupiter  accompanied  by  the  four  satellites  that  sur- 
rounded it  in  its  course  through  the  heavens.  The 
milky  way  resolved  into  an  infinitude  of  stars  that 
were  too  small  to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  He 
noticed  also  the  various  shapes  presented  by  the 
planet  Saturn,  but  did  not  resolve  the  changes  into 
the  presence  of  its  ring.  He  distinguished  the  spots 
on  the  sun,  which  the  peripaticians  had  declared  to  be 
without  blemish  and  incorruptible.  From  them  he  de- 
duced the  fact  of  the  rotation  of  the  sun  on  its  axis."* 

*  Biot.  Biog.  Univs.     T.  15,  P.  413. 
95 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

From  the  pale  disk  of  the  moon  that  becomes 
visible  when  the  new  or  the  old  moon  is  seen,  he 
rightly  concluded  that  the  effect  was  caused  by  the 
reflection  from  the  earth  of  the  sunlight  thereon,  it 
being  analogous  to  the  moonlight  on  the  earth.  He 
saw  how  the  movements  and  the  eclipses  of  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter  would  serve  a  useful  purpose  in 
determining  longitudes,  and  commenced  a  long  series 
of  observations  of  the  planets  for  the  construction  of 
tables  for  the  assistance  of  navigators.  It  is  with 
justice  that  he  is  considered  the  real  inventor  of  the 
telescope  as  an  astronomical  instrument. 

Galileo  was  fully  aware  of  the  effect  his  discoveries 
would  have  in  establishing  the  truth  of  the  Coper- 
nican  system  of  Astronomy  and  in  overthrowing  that 
of  the  Ptolemaic  and  of  the  Aristotelian  philosophy. 
He  believed  himself  at  liberty  to  discredit  the  errors 
that  had  now  become  too  gross  and  apparent  to  be 
longer  tolerated.  Unfortunately  for  him,  he  had  ac- 
cepted the  offer  of  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  who 
had  appointed  him  Mathematician  Extraordinary  to 
his  Court,  and  had  loaded  him  with  favors.  Galileo 
therefore  moved  from  Padua,  where  the  power  of  the 
Republic  of  Venfce  protected  him,  and  where  he  was 
free  and  safe,  to  Florence,  where  he  was  far  less  so, 
since  the  political  exigencies  of  the  state  of  Tuscany 
made  it  much  more  amenable  to  the  dictates  of  Rome. 

96 


GALILEO 

• 

Besides  making  many  men  envious  of  his  fame 
and  fortune,  his  writings  had  excited  against  him 
all  those  who  had  taught  without  contestation  the  old 
philosophy,  and  among  them  nearly  the  whole  body 
of  Ecclesiastics.  Some  of  these  maintained  that  all 
that  he  said  he  saw  was  pure  fiction  ;  others  said 
that  they  had  looked  through  his  glass  (lenses)  for 
entire  nights,  but  saw  nothing  such  as  he  described. 
One  ecclesiastic  quoted  against  him  from  the  pulpit, 
"Viri  Galilaei  quid  statis  aspicientes  in  Caelum" 
(Acts  1.  11),  by  which  the  Scriptures  had  evidently 
intended  to  put  us  on  our  guard  against  this  astrono- 
mer, who  would  try  to  teach  us  falsehoods."  They 
also  tried  to  overwhelm  him  with  ridicule.  The 
most  effective  weapon,  though,  was  to  prohibit  all 
teaching  of  the  Copernican  doctrine  which  he  had 
sustained  with  so  much  force.  It  was  represented  to 
be  false  to  Scripture,  and  was  denounced  as  such  to  the 
Holy  Chair  (Saint  Siege).  Galileo  tried  to  calm  the 
tempest  by  publishing  in  1616  a  letter  addressed  to 
the  Grand  Duchess  of  Tuscany,  in  which  he  under- 
took to  prove  by  citations  from  the  Fathers  that  the 
language  of  the  Scriptures  was  reconcilable  with  the 
new  discoveries  of  the  constitution  of  the  universe. 
This  served,  however,  only  to  give  an  open  field  to 
his  adversaries,  who  denounced  him  as  holding  opin- 
ions contrary  to  the  Faith.  He  was  summoned  to 
7  97 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

Rome  and  obliged  to  appear  there  and  defend  himself. 
Notwithstanding  the  proofs  he  brought  of  the  reality 
of  his  discoveries — of  the  truth  and  justice  of  his 
reasoning,  and  the  evidences  he  gave  of  his  Catholi- 
cism, nothing  could  prevent  an  assembly  of  the 
theologians  appointed  by  the  Pope  from  declaring 
that  "To  maintain  that  the  Sun  is  placed  immovable 
in  the  centre  of  the  world  is  an  absurd  opinion,  false 
in  philosophy  and  positively  heretical,  because  it  is 
contrary  to  the  Scriptures  to  sustain  the  statement 
that  the  earth  is  not  placed  at  the  centre  of  the 
world ;  that  it  is  not  immovable.  And,  likewise, 
that  a  diurnal  motion  on  its  axis  is  also  an  absurd 
proposition,  false  in  philosophy  and  erroneous  at  least 
in  faith." 

Galileo,  thoroughly  astonished,  employed  every 
argument  that  truth  could  suggest  in  the  defense  of 
the  doctrine  that  his  observations  had  proved  to  be 
really  incontrovertible.  No  attention  was  paid  to  his 
proofs  or  reasons;  and,  as  he  showed  himself  disin- 
clined to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  Holy  office, 
they  forbade  him  to  profess  personally  from  that 
time  forward  the  opinions  that  had  been  condemned. 
In  161 7  Galileo  returned  to  Florence,  and,  continuing 
his  astronomical  labors,  gave  his  energies  to  accumu- 
lating during  sixteen  years  the  physical  proofs  of  the 
movement  of  the  earth  and  of  the  constitution  of  the 

98 


GALILEO 

heavenly  bodies.  These  he  embodied  in  a  work  in 
the  form  of  dialogues  between  the  two  distinguished 
Floretinians  before  named — Salviati  and  Sagredo — 
advocates  of  his  new  doctrines,  and  a  fictitious  third 
person  named  Simplicius,  who  adhered  to  the  peri- 
patician  philosophy.  The  former,  who  were  cul- 
tivated and  without  prejudice,  examine,  discuss,  doubt 
and  draw  forth  the  evidences  that  convince  them. 
Simplicius,  a  true  Aristotelian,  listens  to  nothing  and 
will  understand  nothing  that  is  opposed  to  Scholasti- 
cism, and  judges  only  that  to  be  true  or  false  as  it 
accords  with  or  disagrees  with  his  old  teaching. 
The  composition  and  style  of  the  dialogues  were  per- 
fectly adapted  to  the  interlocutors,  and  preserve 
throughout  a  charm  and  elegance,  with  the  most  happy 
choice  of  expression.  Galileo  endeavored  to  obtain 
permission  to  publish  it,  and  presented  it  boldly  in 
person  to  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  College  at  Rome 
as  a  collection  of  scientific  fancies  and  novelties,  with 
the  request  to  examine  it  scrupulously,  to  cut  out 
everything  that  seemed  to  be  suspicious — in  fine,  to 
censure  with  the  utmost  severity  anything  therein 
that  required  censure.  The  prelate,  suspecting  noth- 
ing, read  and  re-read  the  work,  gave  it  to  one  of  his 
old  colleagues  to  judge  of  it,  and,  seeing  nothing  to  be 
reprehended,  gave  to  it  under  his  own  hand  his  full 
approbation.  To  make  use  of  this,  however,  it  would 

99 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

be  necessary  to  print  the  book  in  Rome.  This  Galileo 
dared  not  do,  since  he  had  many  enemies  there  who 
would  surely  frustrate  his  plans.  Taking  advantage 
of  an  epidemic  then  raging  in  Rome,  he  wrote  again 
to  the  Master  of  the  Sacred  College,  asking  permis- 
sion to  print  it  at  Florence  on  condition  that  he 
should  have  it  again  examined  in  that  town.  The 
Prelate  gave  him  the  address  of  a  new  censor,  but 
required  him  to  return  the  former  approval  to  him, 
so  that  he  might  again  see  the  terms  in  which  he  had 
given  it.  Having  received  the  document,  he  would 
make  no  further  answer,  though  Galileo  used  every 
possible  endeavor  to  obtain  it.  Failing  in  this,  he  was 
obliged  to  content  himself  with  the  approval  of  the 
Censor  in  Florence. 

In  order  to  make  himself  safe  from  possible  conse- 
quences, he  represented  his  book  to  be  an  apology  for 
the  judgment  of  Rome  in  condemning  the  Copernican 
doctrine.  The  opening  and  closing  paragraphs  thereof 
were  so  worded  as  to  support  this  idea;  but  the  tenor 
of  the  dialogues  soon  disproved  it.  The  excitement 
and  rage  among  the  ecclesiastics  at  Rome,  when  it 
was  published,  was  beyond  description.  Galileo 
vainly  attempted  to  escape  by  alleging  that  he  had  sub- 
mitted his  book  to  the  Holy  Chair;  vainly  asserted 
that  he  had  only  presented  the  two  systems  of  Ptolemy 
and  of  Copernicus  as  philosophical  problems,  without 

100 


GALILEO^  ',  &  : 


pretending  to  adopt  either  one  or  the  other.  He  had 
hoped  that  the  kindly  feeling  manifested  by  Urbain 
VIII.  in  a  former  visit  to  Rome  would  have  been 
effective  in  his  favor ;  but  Lis  enemies  had  led  the 
Pope  to  believe  that  Galileo  had  depicted  him  under 
the  guise  of  Simplicius.  Unlikely  and  foolish  as 
such  action  in  Galileo  would  have  been,  the  rumor 
may  have  wounded  the  self-love  of  Urbain,  especially 
as  he  may  have  felt  the  force  and  truth  of  Galileo's 
arguments  more  keenly  than  in  his  position  it  would 
have  been  expedient  for  him  to  show. 

Despite  the  strenuous  efforts  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  Galileo  was  summoned  to  appear  before  the 
Inquisition.  Notwithstanding  his  feeble  health  and 
his  advanced  age — sixty-nine  years — on  February  10, 
1633— he  was  taken  to  the  Palace,  Trinite'-du-Mont, 
the  residence  of  the  Ambassador  of  Tuscany,  whence, 
after  a  few  days,  he  was  brought  to  the  Inquisition. 
They  informed  him  he  would  be  permitted  to  ex- 
plain his  reasons  before  the  congregation  of  the 
Inquisition,  and,  afterwards,  if  he  was  judged  to  be 
culpable,  they  would  hear  his  excuses.  In  one  of  his 
letters,  he  writes:  "The  following  Tuesday,  I  ap- 
peared before  the  congregation  of  the  Cardinals,  and 
I  began  to  show  them  my  proofs ;  to  my  misfortune 
they  did  not  seem  to  grasp  them;  and  whatever  pains 
I  took  I  could  not  make  them  comprehend.  They 

101 


\  -TH&CPAfff  OF  EVOLUTION 

cut  short  my  reasoning  with  outbreaks  of  zeal,  or  else 
spoke  only  of  the  scandal  I  had  caused,  and  always 
opposed  to  me  the  passage  of  Scripture  on  the  Miracle 
of  Joshua  as  the  victorious  proof  against  me.  This 
made  me  think  of  another  place  where  the  language 
of  the  Holy  Book  is  evidently  conformed  to  popular 
ideas,  wherein  it  is  said  that  e  the  heavens  are  solid 
and  polished  like  a  brazen  mirror/  To  me  this  ex- 
ample seemed  much  to  the  point  in  proving  that  the 
words  of  Joshua  might  likewise  be  so  interpreted, 
and  the  deduction  therefrom  would  be  perfectly  just ; 
but  they  paid  no  attention  to  it,  and  I  had  nothing 
but  a  shrug  of  the  shoulders  for  the  reply ."  On  the 
30th  of  April  he  was  returned  to  the  Palace  of 
the  Ambassador  of  Tuscany,  but  forbidden  to  leave 
the  enclosure  thereof.  On  June  25th  he  was  brought 
again  before  the  congregation  of  the  Inquisition, 
where  his  sentence  was  read  to  him.  He  was  made 
to  kneel  before  his  judges,  his  head  bowed  down  and 
his  hand  placed  upon  the  Holy  Gospels.  The  fol- 
lowing words  were  dictated  to  him,  which  he  repeated 
aloud : 

"  I,  Galileo  Galilei,  of  Florence,  aged  seventy 
years,  being  placed  here  personally  in  judgment  and 
kneeling  before  you,  Most  Eminent  and  Most  Rev- 
erend Cardinals  of  the  universal  Christian  Republic, 
inquisitors  general  against  heretical  malice,  having 

102 


GALILEO 

before  my  eyes  the  Holy  and  Sacred  Evangels,  which 
I  touch  with  my  own  hands,  do  swear  that  I  have 
always  believed,  that  I  believe  now,  and  with  God's 
help  I  will  believe  in  the  future,  all  that  which  is 
held,  preached  and  taught  by  the  Holy  Catholic 
Church,  Roman  and  Apostolic.  I  have  been  judged  as 
being  vehemently  suspected  of  heresy,  for  havingmain- 
tained  and  believed  that  the  sun  was  the  centre  of  the 
world  and  immovable,  and  that  the  earth  was  not  the 
centre,  and  that  it  moved.  Therefore,  wishing  to 
efface  from  the  minds  of  your  Eminence  and  from  all 
Catholic  Christianity  this  vehement  suspicion  con- 
ceived justly  against  me,  it  is  with  a  sincere  heart 
and  with  faith  not  feigned  that  I  abjure,  curse  and 
detest  the  above-named  errors  and  heresies  and  all 
other  errors  generally." 

Galileo  was  not  of  the  stuff  that  martyrs  are  made 
from.  No  doubt  it  would  have  been  nobler  in  him 
to  have  remained  steadfast  to  his  convictions  and  to 
his  knowledge  of  their  truth  ;  but  he  realized  at  last 
the  danger  that  he  was  in,  and  that  he  would  only 
destroy  himself  by  attempting  to  resist  the  power  of 
Rome.  It  was  only  seventeen  years  before  his  first 
citation  to  Rome  that  Giordano  Bruno  had  perished 
at  the  stake  by  order  of  the  same  tribunal.  It  was 
thirty-three  years  before  his  own  abjuration  that  Bruno, 
adhering  to  the  same  heresies,  refused  to  recant,  and 

103 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

for  them  died.  It  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  in 
Bruno's  case  the  aim  of  the  Inquisition  wa's  to  pre- 
vent the  dissemination  of  his  doctrines,  and  that 
his  death  by  fire  after  seven  years'  imprisonment 
was  intended  not  only  to  stop  their  teaching,  but  to 
serve  as  a  prominent  example  of  the  power  of  the 
Church  and  of  its  determination  to  forcibly  root  out 
all  who  were  persistent  in  spreading  their  heresies 
throughout  the  land.  Only  fourteen  years  later  (in 
1619)  Vanini  was  burned  alive  in  Genoa  for 
blasphemy  ! 

Galileo's  submission  was  absolute.  If  it  had  not 
been  so,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  he  would  have 
been  closely  imprisoned  until  death  relieved  him. 
As  it  was,  the  Church  obtained  -all  it  wished  for — the 
suppression  of  his  revolutionary  philosophy,  and  the 
absolute  denial  of  his  belief  in  the  trjith  thereof. 
He  seemed  not  to  have  troubled  himself  as  to  the 
main  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  never  questioned 
or  deviated  from  its  other  authoritative  theological 
teaching ;  therefore  his  punishment  was  light  and 
his  even  nominal  imprisonment  of  short  duration. 
Within  the  same  year  he  was  permitted  to  reside  at 
his  country-seat  near  Florence.  When  seventy-four 
years  of  age  he  lost  his  sight.  He  died  January  8, 
1642,  aged  seventy-eight  years,  the  same  year  in  which 
Isaac  Newton  was  born. 

104 


GALILEO 

Galileo  made  no  additions  to  Philosophy  or  to  the 
theories  of  Science.  His  great  work  was  in  the 
practical  observation  of  nature,  and  in  the  persist- 
ence with  which  he  taught,  until  his  arrest,  the 
truth  and  evidences  of  the  Copernican  theories  which 
his  discoveries  firmly  established.  The  ability  with 
which  his  views  were  set  forth  and  the  purity  and 
elegance  of  his  style — which,  as  Hume  states,  has 
made  his  writings  classic — contributed  much  to  the 
dissemination  of  his  discoveries  and  to  his  own 
celebrity.* 

*  The  above  is  mainly  frora  Jean  Baptiste  Biot.  (Biographe  Uni- 
verselle,  2  Edit.,  T.  XV.) 

105 


CHAPTER  X 

SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON — LIFE  AND  DISCOVERIES  IN 
MATHEMATICS,  PROPERTIES  OF  LIGHT  AND 
LAWS  OF  GRAVITATION — HIS  DISLIKE  OF 
THEORIZING. 

NEARLY  one  year  after  the  death  of  Galileo 
(January  8,  1642)  there  was  born  at  Woolsthorpe, 
Lincolnshire,  England,  on  Christmas  day,  1642,  Old 
Style  (January  5, 1643,  New  Style)  ISAAC  NEWTON, 
whose  name,  inseparably  associated  with  that  of 
Galileo,  will  remain  immortal  in  the  memory  of 
mankind.  Newton  was  the  son  of  a  landed  pro- 
prietor of  limited  means,  but  whose  family  had 
possessed  the  estate  upon  which  he  was  born  nearly 
three  hundred  years.  His  birth  was  premature,  and 
he  was  so  small  and  feeble  that  it  was  thought  that 
he  could  not  live.  Very  soon  after  his  birth  his 
father  died.  His  mother  re-married  when  he  was 
three  years  old,  but  faithfully  fulfilled  her  duties  to 
her  child,  and  gave  him  an  education  that  would  be 
appropriate  to  his  position  as  a  country  squire.  He 
showed  a  great  aptitude  for  mechanical  contrivances, 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTOtf 

and  such  a  desire  to  study  that  he  was  returned  to 
the  school  at  Grantham,  where  he  remained  until 
eighteen  years  old,  whence,  in  1660,  he  was  admitted 
to  Cambridge.  Here,  under  the  tuition  of  Barrow, 
one  of  the  greatest  mathematicians  of  his  time,  he 
thoroughly  mastered  the  Geometry  of  Descartes  and 
the  "Arithmetica  Infinitorum"  of  John  Wallis. 
From  the  study  of  the  latter,  when  he  was  twenty- 
one  years  old,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  perfecting  it  by 
further  developments,  and  worked  out  the  details  of 
the  Binomial  Theorem  that  has  since  borne  his  name, 
and  to  which  he  gave  the  necessary  algebraic  formula. 
In  this  consisted  the  "  method  of  fluxions  "  of  which 
Newton  then  laid  the  foundation,  to  be  eleven  years 
later  re-invented  by  Leibnitz  and  presented  by  him 
under  another  form — that  of  the  Differential  Cal- 
culus— which  is  in  general  use  to-day.  These  pro- 
cesses he  had  worked  out  before  he  was  twenty-three 
years  of  age.  He  kept  them  secret,  not  revealing 
them  even  to  his  former  teachers,  Barrow  and 
Wallis.  It  was  not  until  1668,  when  Mercator  pub- 
lished his  work  entitled  Logarithmo-technia,  in  which 
he  showed  how  to  obtain  the  quadrature  of  an  hyper- 
bola, that  Newton  was  forced  to  produce  the  proofs 
of  his  earlier  methods.  He  presented  them  to  his 
master  Barrow,  who  was  astonished  at  the  number 
and  the  value  of  the  analytical  discoveries,  which  far 

107 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

surpassed  those  of  Mercator,  that  had  caused  the 
general  admiration  of  the  learned  world.  Newton 
seemed  to  lose  interest  in  his  mathematical  proced- 
ures as  soon  as  they  ceased  to  be  novelities  to  him. 
He  never  occupied  himself  earnestly  with  two 
different  branches  of  scientific  thought  at  the  same 
time.  His  attention  was  now  (1666)  strongly  drawn 
to  the  subject  of  the  refraction  of  light,  in  which  he 
had  made  many  experiments  with  glass  prisms. 
These  experiments  were  begun  at  first  as  a  mere 
matter  of  amusement  and  curiosity,  but  soon  led  to 
important  results.  He  found  that  a  ray  of  light  from 
the  sun  is  not  a  simple  and  homogenous  beam,  but  is 
composed  of  a  number  of  rays  of  unequal  refrangi- 
bility  and  of  different  colors. 

The  prevalence  of  the  Plague  in  the  towns  of 
England  drove  Newton  into  the  country  for  safety, 
and  put  a  stop  for  the  time  to  his  scientific  work  by 
depriving  him  of  the  needed  instruments  and  appli- 
ances. He  retired  to  his  country  house  at  Wools- 
thorpe,  about  110  miles  from  London.  It  was  here 
and  at  this  time  that  Newton  saw  the  apple  fall  that 
set  him  to  thinking  on  the  cause  of  gravity,  and  on 
the  movements  of  bodies  uniformly  accelerated,  to  the 
study  of  which  his  "  method  of  fluxions"  had  been 
applied.  Reflecting  afterwards  upon  the  nature  of 
this  singular  power  that  drew  bodies  towards  the 

lot 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 

centre  of  the  earth  with  an  ever-increasing  swiftness, 
and  which  acted  without  apparent  diminution,  on  the 
top  of  the  highest  towers  or  mountains,  he  thought, 
why  may  not  this  power  extend  even  to  the  moon, 
and  then  what  more  would  be  needed  to  hold  it 
in  its  course  around  the  earth  ?  The  next  step  then 
would  be  to  see  if  the  same  power  would  retain  the 
planets  in  their  orbits  around  the  sun.  These  were  but 
conjectures;  but  he  soon  proceeded  to  verify  them  by 
the  appropriate  calculations.  To  arrive  at  the  effect  of 
gravity  between  the  earth  and  the  moon  it  was  neces- 
sary to  use  the  radius  of  the  Earth  for  the  first  factor. 
This  radius,  was  at  that  time  calculated  from  the 
length  of  a  degree  on  the  earth's  curvature  being 
equal  to  sixty  miles.  From  this  datura,  which  was 
thought  to  be  correct,  Newton  found  that  the  law  that 
"  gravitation  was  directly  as  the  mass  and  inversely 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  between  the  centres" 
would  not  account  for  the  moon's  motion  around  the 
earth.  He  therefore  laid  aside  this  hypothesis  for 
many  years  as  incapable  of  verification,  until  later 
correct  measurements  proved  the  length  of  a  degree 
to  be  sixty-nine  and  one-tenth  miles,  and  not  sixty 
miles,  as  he  had  been  led  to  believe. 

On  the  cessation  of  the  Plague,  at  the  end  of  1666, 
he  returned  to  Cambridge.  In  1669  he  was  appointed 
in  the  place  of  Barrow,  who  had  resigned  in  his  favor, 

109 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

to  the  Chair  of  Optics  at  Cambridge.  Having  thus 
every  facility  for  his  labors,  he  devoted  himself  to  ob- 
servations without  number,  and  formed  therefrom  a 
complete  doctrine  of  the  fundamental  properties  of 
light,  which  he  classified  and  arranged  from  his  ex- 
perience and  experiments  only,  without  any  admix- 
ture of  hypothesis — a  novelty  as  unheard  of  as  were 
the  new  properties  he  disclosed.  It  was  not  until 
1675  that  he  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  his 
conjectures  upon  the  nature  of  light,  prefacing  his  re- 
marks with  :  "  To  me  the  subject  is  unimportant,  since 
my  discoveries  are  matters  of  fact,  and  for  their  ex- 
istence independent  of  any  hypothesis ; "  but  added  : 
"  I  believe  I  have  seen  that  the  heads  of  many  of  the 
greatest  savants  run  strongly  towards  hypotheses ;  I 
will  say,  therefore,  what  I  am  led  to  regard  as  the 
most  probable,  should  I  be  obliged  to  adopt  one." 
He  then  proceeded  to  describe,  nearly  as  Descartes 
had  done,  the  probable  existence  of  the  imperceptible 
Ether,  in  which  and  by  which  light  is  transmitted. 
Newton  thought  that  light  was  composed  of  hetero- 
geneous particles,  different  from  the  ether  itself,  which 
were  emitted  in  all  directions  from  a  luminous  body 
with  an  excessive  swiftness,  agitating  the  ether,  caus- 
ing undulations  therein,  by  which  the  movements  of 
the  said  particles,  as  well  as  the  ether  waves  them- 
selves, might  be  accelerated  or  retarded.  The  in- 

JIO 


SIR  ISAAC  XEWTON 

berent  principle  of  movement  in  these  minute  ma- 
terial particles  would  continue  to  act  upon  them,  ac- 
celerating perpetually  their  swiftness,  until  the  re- 
sistance of  the  ethereal  medium  would  equal  the 
instantaneous  action  of  the  principle,  when  the  move- 
ment of  every  corpuscle  would  become  uniform.  The 
above  constituted  the  main  features  of  his  Corpuscular 
Theory  of  light,  and  was  compatible  with  the  known 
facts  of  the  refraction  of  light  and  of  the  color  of 
thin  plates,  etc.,  but  failed  in  explaining  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  double  refraction  of  Iceland  Spar,  or 
the  dispersive  power  of  different  bodies,  as  well  as 
many  other  phenomena  later  discovered,  which  have 
led  to  the  rejection  of  the  corpuscular  theory  and  the 
universal  acceptance  of  the  vibratory  theory,  main- 
tained in  Newton's  time  by  Hooke  and  by  Huygens, 
but  rejected  by  Newton  himself. 

The  renown  in  which  Newton's  name  is  held  is 
especially  due  to  the  proofs  he  gave  of  the  firm 
establishment  of  the  laws  that  govern  the  movements 
of  the  solar  and  planetary  bodies,  and  to  the  absolute 
demonstration  that  they  are  identical  with  the  law  that 
expresses  the  movement  of  a  body  dropped  from 
a  heights  towards  the  centre  of  the  earth — the  law  of 
gravitation.  This  law  is :  "  All  bodies  attract  each 
other  with  a  force  that  is  directly  as  the  mass  (the 
sum  of  substance)  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 

in 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

distance."  The  originality  of  the  conception  of  these 
relations  is  not  Newton's.  Islmiael  Bouillau  (1605- 
1694)  from  metaphysical  considerations  maintained 
that  the  action  of  the  sun  upon  the  planets  decreases  as 
the  square  of  the  distance ;  not  as  Kepler  had  asserted 
in  the  direct  ratio  of  the  distance.  Jean  Alphonse 
Borelli  (1608-1679)  explained  clearly  in  his  book 
on  the  Satellites  of  Jupiter  (1666)  how  the  planets 
were  held  in  space  around  the  sun  by  a  power  that 
was  exactly  balanced  by  the  centrifugal  force  due  to 
their  revolution ;  and  therefore  there  was  no  need  of 
the  solid  skies  of  Aristotle  or  the  Vortices  of  Des- 
cartes to  prevent  their  flying  off. 

Robert  Hooke  (1635-1703),  who  spent  a  large 
portion  of  his  life  in  disputing  the  priority  of  his 
theories  and  discoveries  with  his  rivals,  who  likewise 
claimed  them,  published  in  1674  an  essay  upon — 

1st.  The  reciprocal  attraction  of  the  sun  and  all  the 
planets  upon  each  other. 

2d.  The  supposition  that  the  heavenly  bodies 
when  once  in  motion  would  persist  in  motion  in  a 
straight  line  until  some  other  force  would  bend  or 
deflect  their  course  into  a  circle,  ellipse  or  other 
composite  curve. 

3d.  That  the  attractive  powers  exercise  more 
energy  in  proportion  as  the  bodies  upon  which  they 
act  approach  the  centre  from  which  they  emanate. 

112 


SIX   ISAAC  NEWTON 

In  1679  he  wrote  to  Newton  on  the  nature  of  the 
course  of  projectiles,  presenting  as  a  certain  fact  that 
an  eccentric  ellipse  would  be  the  consequence  of  re- 
ciprocal gravity  in  the  ratio  of  the  squares  of  the 
distances  from  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Newton  was 
still  unwilling  to  give  expression  to  his  own  opinions, 
since  he  could  not  reconcile  his  calculations  of  the 
distance  of  the  moon  based  upon  the  diameter  of  the 
earth  as  it  was  then  given.  In  1682  he  learned  that 
the  measure  of  a  terrestrial  degree  had  been  lately 
made  with  extreme  care  by  Picard.  Obtaining 
the  length  of  a  degree  thus  calculated,  Newton  re- 
turned home,  and,  taking  up  his  calculations  made 
in  1665,  he  revised  it  with  the  change  therein  made 
by  the  new  length  of  a  degree.  As  he  advanced 
and  saw  the  result  it  would  have  on  his  theories,  he 
became  so  excited  that  he  could  not  continue  his  cal- 
culations, and  was  obliged  to  ask  a  friend  to  com- 
plete them  for  him.  This  time,  the  accordance  of 
his  theory  with  the  observations  was  perfect.  The 
effect  of  weight  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  as  drawn 
from  his  experiments  with  the  fall  of  bodies,  when 
applied  to  the  moon — diminishing  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  between  the  centres  of  the  respective  bodies 
— was  found  to  be  identically  equal  to  the  centrifugal 
force  of  the  moon,  and  conclusive  as  to  the  rapidity 
of  its  course  and  of  the  observed  distances.  He  who 
8  113 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

had  been  held  in  suspense  so  many  years  by  the 
error  in  the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  earth's 
curvature  now  gave  himself  to  the  renewed  calcula- 
tion with  a  boldness  of  thought  never  before  seen, 
and  proved  by  the  law  above  named  how  the  planets 
and  comets  were  held  in  place ;  determined  the  nature 
of  their  orbits ;  the  weight  and  form  of  their  masses ; 
the  oscillation  of  the  tides  and  fluids  that  covered 
them ;  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  and  the  endless 
number  of  other  questions  thus  given  birth  to.  In 
1684  Newton  showed  to  Halley — who  had  come  to 
Cambridge  to  consult  him  in  regard  to  the  action  of 
centrifugal  forces — a  treatise  he  had  composed  con- 
cerning motion  (de  motio),  and  which  was  the  basis  of 
his  great  work,  "  The  Principia." 

The  latter  work,  "  Philosophia  Naturalis  Principia 
Mathematica,"  was  shown  to  the  Royal  Society  in 
1686.  The  work  was  published  by  Halley  at  his 
own  expense.  Among  the  savants  of  the  time  there 
were  but  few  capable  of  appreciating  the  value  thereof, 
and  of  the  few,  Hooke  and  Wren  disputed  the  orig- 
inality of  the  discoveries.  Huygens  even  only  par- 
tially accepted  the  doctrine  of  universal  gravitation. 
He  applied  it  to  the  heavenly  bodies,  but  substituted 
theories  of  his  own  for  the  movements  of  bodies  on 
the  earth.  Leibnitz  was  led  by  his  metaphysical 
tendencies  to  undervalue  it,  and  to  suggest  methods 

114 


ISAAC  NEWTON 


of  his  own  devising  for  proving  the  same  truths. 
Profound  mathematicians,  among  them  Jean  Ber- 
noutti,  combated  it  later.  Foiitenelle,  though  Secre- 
tary of  the  Academic  des  Sciences  for  forty-two  years, 
would  only  consider  the  laws  of  attraction  as  being 
more  than  doubtful,  and  through  his  long  life  held 
firmly  to  the  Vortices  of  Descartes.  The  three 
"  Laws  of  Motion  "  given  by  Newton  still  remain 
without  change  or  addition.  They  are  : 

1.  That  of  Inertia.     Every  body  continues  in  its 
state  of  rest,  or  of  uniform  motion  in  a  straight  line, 
except  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  compelled  by  force  to 
change  that  line. 

2.  Change  of  motion  is  proportional  to  force  ap- 
plied, and  takes  place  in  the  direction  of  the  straight 
line  in  which  the  force  acts. 

3.  To  every  action  there  is  always  an  equal  and 
contrary  reaction,  or  the  mutual  actions  of  any  two 
bodies  are  always  equal,  and  oppositely  directed. 

It  was  more  than  fifty  years  after  its  publication 
that  the  truths  demonstrated  in  the  Principia  were 
even  understood,  much  less  embraced  by  the  generality 
of  savants.  After  the  completion  of  his  great  work 
Newton  confined  himself  to  working  out  the  details 
of  his  former  labors,  and  did  not  enter  into  any  new 
scientific  work.  He  suffered  much  from  sleepless- 
ness, which  was  aggravated  by  the  vexatious  disputes 

"5 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

into  which  he  was  drawn  by  Hooke,  by  Leibnitz 
and  by  others  with  reference  to  the  originality  and 
priority  of  his  discoveries,  which  in  1693  so  injured 
his  health  that  for  many  months  afterwards  his 
reason  was  affected.  Rest  and  quiet  restored  him ; 
but  in  his  works  on  optics  that  appeared  in  1704, 
and  in  later  works  on  science,  he  always  stated  that 
they  were  titles  of  ancient  works  that  he  had  com- 
posed long  before,  and  in  which,  though  they  needed 
revision  and  extension,  of  which  he  felt  the  necessity, 
in  order  that  they  might  be  nearer  perfect,  yet  he 
could  not  bring  himself  to  undertake  the  work.  The 
appointment  to  the  Directorship  of  the  Mint  in  1699 
gave  him  a  competent  livelihood.  In  1703  he  be- 
came President  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London, 
which  he  retained  for  twenty-five  years,  until  his 
death.  In  1705  Queen  Anne  knighted  him.  The 
disputes  between  Leibnitz  and  Newton  concerning 
the  differential  calculus  continued  with  increasing 
acerbity  until  the  death  of  the  former  in  1716.  It 
must  be  said  that  each  was  unjust  to  the  other,  and 
Newton  was  even  more  so  than  his  opponent. 

Newton  was  a  believer  in  the  science  of  Alchemy. 
He  pursued  his  experiments  in  the  search  of  the 
Philosopher's  Stone  until  late  in  life.  The  famil- 
iarity with  chemical  reactions  thus  obtained  was  of 
service  to  him  when  he  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 

116 


SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON 

Royal  Mint.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  Newton 
published  a  "Chronology  of  Ancient  Kingdoms," 
that  he  had  composed  when  at  Cambridge,  founded 
on  the  astronomical  observations  of  the  ancients. 
After  his  death  were  published  a  number  of  disserta- 
tions upon  the  prophecies  contained  in  the  Scriptures, 
which  he  considered  embraced  a  mystical  meaning. 
Such  conjectures  were  in  accordance  with  the  cus- 
tom of  many  men  of  science  of  his  time.  No  par- 
ticular value  is  attached  to  these  papers.  Many  other 
of  his  writings  of  the  same  nature  remain  unpub- 
lished. Newton  never  married.  His  health,  after 
recovering  from  the  attack  before  named,  was  excel- 
lent until  he  was  eighty  years  old.  He  never  required 
the  use  of  glasses  to  aid  his  vision  and  never  even 
lost  a  tooth.  When  eighty-five  he  suffered  for 
about  twenty  days  from  the  presence  of  a  calculus. 
Two  days  before  his  death  he  lost  consciousness.  He 
died  March  20,  1727.* 

*  The  notice  of  Newton  is  mainly  drawn  from  Jean  Baptiste  Biot's 
exhaustive  article  in  the  Biog.  Univ.-— 2d  Edit.     T.  30. 

117 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE     EXISTENCE    OP    THE     ETHEREAL    MEDIUM — 
TRANSMISSION    OF   LIGHT  AND   HEAT. 

IT  has  been  mentioned  that  Newton  considered 
that  Light  was  caused  by  material  corpuscles  emitted 
from  a  luminous  body  and  moving  with  an  extreme 
swiftness  through  the  interstellar  Ether,  to  which  it 
transmitted  motion,  and  by  which  it  ultimately 
reached  the  eye  of  the  observer.  The  action  of 
gravitation  in  causing  the  movement  of  bodies  towards 
each  other,  and  of  the  planets  and  satellites  in  their 
orbits,  he  thought  was  also  due  to  the  existence  of  such 
a  medium,  filling  all  space.  The  doctrine  of  direct 
action  at  a  distance,  by  which  one  body  could  influence 
another  body  not  in  contact  therewith,  nor  with  any 
intermediate  substance,  in  his  opinion  was  absurd. 
In  his  letter  to  Bentley  he  wrote :  "  It  is  inconceivable 
that  inanimate  brute  matter  should,  without  the  me- 

118 


THE  INTERSTELLAR   ETHER 

diation  of  something  else  which  is  not  material, 
operate  upon  and  affect  other  matter  not  in  contact,  as 
it  must  do  if  gravitation  in  the  sense  of  Epicurus  be 
essential  and  inherent  in  it  ...  That  gravity  should 
be  innate,  inherent  and  essential  to  matter,  so  that 
one  body  can  act  upon  another  at  a  distance,  through 
a  vacuum,  without  the  mediation  of  anything  else,  by 
and  through  which  their  action  and  force  may  be 
conveyed  from  one  to  another,  is  to  me  so  great  an 
absurdity  that  I  believe  no  man  who  has  in  philo- 
sophical matters  a  competent  faculty  of  thinking  can 
ever  fall  into  it."  He  sought  for  the  explanation  of 
gravitation  in  the  existence  of  an  ethereal  medium  at 
an  early  date,  but  found  that  he  was  not  able  from 
experiment  or  observation  to  give  a  satisfactory  ac- 
count of  this  medium  and  the  manner  of  its  operation 
in  producing  this,  the  chief  phenomena  of  nature.* 

The  lapse  of  nearly  two  hundred  years  has  left  the 
problem  of  the  nature  of  the  ethereal  medium  still 
unsolved,  and  even  the  possibility  of  its  non-exist- 
ence, and  of  the  action  at  a  distance  of  matter  upon 
matter,  has  still  its  advocates ;  so  far  at  least  as  the 
cause  of  the  weight  of  matter  or  gravitation  is  con- 
cerned. 

The   recognition   of  the   fact   that   radiant    heat, 

*  Enc.  Brit.    9th  Ed.     Art  Attraction. 
119 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

light  and  electricity  are  modes  of  motion  only,  and 
the  accurate  knowledge  we  now  have  of  the  laws 
governing  the  phenomena  presented,  in  their  trans- 
mission and  conversion  into  other  forms  of  physical 
and  chemical  energy,  constitute  the  greatest  and  most 
important  part  of  the  foundations  of  modern  science. 
The  theories  of  light,  heat  and  electricity  now  claim 
almost  without  dispute  the  existence  of  the  ether  fill- 
ing interstellar  space  as  the  postulate  of  their  being, 
since  they  are  but  the  vibrations  or  the  undulations 
thereof,  and  without  which,  they  are  not. 

The  nature  of  the  Ether  and  its  constitution  has 
been  the  object  of  thought  of  men  from  the  earliest 
historic  times.  About  500  B.  C.  Xenophanes  and 
the  Eleatic  School  believed  in  the  immutability,  the 
unity,  the  continuity  and  the  immobility  of  matter, 
and  that  the  evidences  of  the  senses  were  illusions 
only.  Leucippe,  in  opposition  thereto,  taught  that 
matter  was  like  a  sponge,  in  which  the  atoms  are 
separated  by  vacous  spaces,  the  atoms  being  solid, 
impenetrable  and  almost  infinitely  small.  All  bodies 
are  composed  of  this  assemblage,  or  union,  of  the 
plenum  and  the  vacuum.  The  atoms  are  of  various 
shapes,  and  when  grouped  in  various  ways  give  rise 
to  the  different  kinds  of  matter.  His  disciple,  Democ- 
ritus  (470  B.  C.),  taught  what  is  now  nearly  the  ac- 

120 


THE  ETHER    OF  DEMOCRITUS 

cepted  doctrine  :  "  Nothing  is  made  of  nothing,  nor 
can  anything  be  resolved  into  that  which  is  not. 
Therefore,  all  that  is,  is  composed  of  principles  self- 
existing  of  themselves.  These  principles  are  the  atoms, 
and  the  vacuum  is  the  space  between  the  atoms.  .  .  . 
The  atoms  are  infinite  in  number,  as  space  is  in  ca- 
pacity. The  atoms  are  of  such  tenuity  that  they 
escape  all  perception.  Their  solidity  renders  them 
indestructible.  Their  shape  is  infinitely  varied. 
These  atoms  are  the  primitive  bodies  which  move  in 
that  infinite  space  that  admits  of  no  relations  of  posi- 
tion, indicated  by  such  words  as  high,  low,  the  middle, 
or  the  extreme.  The  movement  of  the  atoms  has  had 
no  commencement :  it  is  from  eternity.  By  it  (the  mo- 
tion) the  atoms  are  attracted,  repulsed,  are  united,  are 
separated.  From  the  unions  and  from  the  separa- 
tion result  the  composition,  and  the  decomposition  of 
all  bodies.  Bodies  only  differ  among  themselves  by 
the  number,  the  shape  and  the  reciprocal  composition 
or  decomposition  of  the  groups  of  atoms  which  com- 
pose them.  The  worlds  themselves  disseminated  in 
infinite  number  throughout  infinite  space,  whatever 
may  be  their  relative  equality  or  inequality,  have  no 
other  origin,  and  are  submitted  to  the  same  variations. 
The  rapid  movement  of  the  atoms  is  the  soul  which 
penetrates  these  worlds  as  with  the  action  of  fire. 

121 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

Fire   itself  is  composed  of  round  atoms,  always  in 
agitation."  * 

Epicurus  (342-270  B.  c.)  adopted  Democritus' 
idea  of  the  atoms,  to  which  he  added  the  properties 
of  weight,  thus  constituting  gravitation  and  affinity, 
which  constitutes  the  germ  of  Chemistry.  It  is  the 
philosophy  of  Epicurus  that  Lucretius  expounds  in 
his  poem  "  De  Rerum  Natura,"  much  of  which  reads 
almost  like  a  modern  treatise  on  Physics.  Lucretius 
argues  that  space  must  consist  of  atoms  of  material 
substance,  separated  one  from  another  by  vacuous  in- 
tervals. He  insists  elsewhere  that  they  must  also  be 
in  constant  motion.  These  are  conditions  that  the 
modern  atomic  theory  of  the  Ether  likewise  requires. 
He  writes :  "  Thus  if  there  was  no  such  thing  as  space 
vacated,  or  a  vacuum,  everything  would  be  solid ; 
then,  again,  unless  there  were  some  things  solid  to 
fill  up  the  space,  everything,  all,  would  be  empty 
space.  Body  from  space  is  in  itself  distinct,  for  all 
is  neither  full  nor  is  all  void,  and  thus  there  are 
solid  atoms  which  cause  the  difference  between  the 
plenum  and  space.  These  solid  atoms  by  no  force 
from  without  can  be  dissolved,  nor  can  they  be  de- 
stroyed by  being  penetrated  from  within,  nor  made  to 
yield  by  any  other  means,  as  I  have  taken  pains  to 
show.  For  no  things  can  come  in  collision  or  be 

"  Democrite"— par  Etienne  Pariset.  Biog.  Univ.     T.  10,  p.  387. 
122 


THE  ATOMS  OF  LUCRETIUS 

broken,  or  by  force  be  cleft  in  two,  or  receive  moisture 
or  the  piercing  cold,  or  the  searching  fire  which  all 
things  else  destroy,  without  a  void."  * 

Lucretius  here  opposes,  as  he  does  throughout  his 
work,  the  Eleatic  doctrine  taught  by  Xenophanes 
(617-510  B.C.),  and  later  by  Parmenides  (504  B.C.): 
"  That  the  world  is  one,  immutable,  immovable  and 
indivisible :  that  it  fills  all  space,  in  which  there  is 
no  void,  no  vacuum,  consequently  there  can  be  no 
movement,  for  there  is  no  place  to  move  to.  The 
senses,  it  is  true,  testify  that  there  is  a  plurality  in 
composition  and  in  things,  but  the  senses  are  fal- 
lacious and  illusive,  and  must  not  be  received  by  the 
reason.  Space  is  a  plenum,  and  is  indivisible  and 
continuous,  infinite  and  cannot  be  divided."  In  other 

*De  Rerum  Natura. 

Turn  porro  si  nil  esset,  quod  inane  vacaret, 
Omne  foret  solidum.     Nisi  contra  corpora  caeca 
Essent,  quae  loca  complerent,  quaecunque  tenerent : 
Omne,  quod  est,  spatium  vacuum  constaret  inane 
Alternis  igitur  nimirum  corpus  inani 
Distinctum  est,  quoniam  nee  plenum  naviter  exstat, 
Nee  porro  vacuum.     Sunt  ergo  corpora  caeca, 
Quse  spatium  pleno  possint  distinguere  inane. 
Heec  neque  dissolvi  plagis  extrinsecus  icta 
Possunt :  nee  porro  penitus  penetrata  retexi ; 
Nee  ratione  queunt  alia  tentata  labare  : 
Id  quod  jam  supera  tibi  paulo  ostendimus  ante. 
Nam  neque  conlidi  sine  inani  posse  videtur 
Quidquam,  nee  frangi,  nee  findi  in  bina  secando  : 
Nee  capere  humorem,  neque  item  manabile  frigus, 
Nee  penetralem  ignem,  quibus  omnia  conficiuntur. 

(Lucretius — De  Rerum  Natura.    Lib.  1.    521.) 
123 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

words,  Xenophanes  accepts  the  geometrical  idea  of 
matter  and  of  space.  A  figure  that  is  continuous  and 
that  can  be  infinitely  divided  only  by  destroying  it. 

Leucippe,  Epicurus  and  his  disciple,  Lucretius,  on 
the  contrary,  assert  the  numerical  idea — that  matter 
is  discontinuous ;  we  pass  from  one  number  to  the 
next,  Per  saltum ;  the  numbers  being  individuals, 
and  building  up  the  sum  or  body  by  their  aggrega- 
tion, which  body  can  be  again  divided  into  its  original 
numerals,  or  individual  factors,  the  atoms.  * 

Modern  science  is  still  somewhat  in  doubt  between 
these  conflicting  views.  The  laws  under  which  the 
transmission  of  light  and  heat  from  the  sun  to  the 
earth  and  other  planets,  and  the  transference  of  heat 
on  earth  from  one  body  to  another  by  radiation,  are 
fully  established.  They  are  demonstrated  facts.  Their 
phenomena  necessitate  the  assumption  that  there  is 
something  that  exists  throughout  infinite  space — be- 
tween us  and  the  far  distant  star — that  even  the  latest 
and  most  powerful  telescopes  fail  to  reveal :  so  far 
off  that  its  light  even  then  is  not  directly  perceptible 
to  human  vision,  but  proves  its  presence  through  the 
slow  action  of  the  telescopic  camera  upon  the  photo- 
graphic plate. 

This  something  is  set  in  vibration  by  the  sun,  or 
other  star  that  is  intensely  hot.  The  undulations,  or 

*J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  Ency.  Brit.     9th  Edit.    "Attraction." 
124 


THE  LIGHT-BRINGING  ETHER 

transverse  vibrations,  are  transmitted  from  the  sun 
with  the  speed  of  light,  for  they  are  light,  through 
the  intervening  minimum  distance  of  91,430,000 
miles  with  a  velocity  of  more  than  186,000  miles  a 
second,  thus  requiring  eight  and  one-third  minutes  for 
them  to  reach  the  earth.  The  light  from  the  nearest 
fixed  star,  a  sun  to  other  worlds,  requires  three  years  to 
reach  us ;  from  the  most  distant  stars  hundreds,  if  not 
thousands,  of  years.  These  vibrations  of  the  ETHER, 
for  such  it  is  called,  are  of  course  without  other  ac- 
tion upon  the  intervening  space,  which  contains  only 
the  ether  itself,  and  pass  with  little  action  through 
our  atmosphere ;  would  probably  do  so  absolutely 
without  action  if  the  air  consisted  only  of  oxygen  and 
nitrogen  gases,  its  main  and  essential  constituents. 
The  heat  directly  absorbed  by  the  air  from  the  sun's 
rays  is  almost  nothing;  nearly  all  its  heat  is  derived 
from  contact  with  the  earth,  which  is  heated  by  the 
sun's  rays ;  the  higher  we  ascend  a  mountain,  or  into 
the  air  by  means  of  a  balloon,  the  colder  the  air  be- 
comes. The  presence  of  foreign  gases,  carbon  di- 
oxide, ammoniacal  gas,  the  vapor  of  water,  and  even 
the  odor  of  plants  and  other  organic  matter,  increases 
the  absorptive  or  heat-retaining  power  of  the  air,  in 
some  cases  one  hundredfold,  in  others  many  thousand 
times.  This  especially  is  the  case  with  heat  of  low 
intensity,  of  which  much  more  relatively  is  retained 

125 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

than  when  it  is  of  high  intensity.  The  temperature 
of  the  atmosphere  is  thus  regulated  ;  for  if  the  earth 
radiated  its  heat  away  as  readily  as  the  solids  of  the 
earth  receive  it  from  the  sun,  the  temperature  even  of 
the  tropics  would  be  200  degrees  C.  below  freezing.* 

The  undulations  of  the  ether  are  excessively  rapid. 
Those  which  affect  the  eye  and  produce  vision  vary 
from  370  million  million  per  second  in  the  ultra  red 
rays  of  the  spectrum  to  833  million  million  per 
second  in  the  ultra  violet  rays ;  these  rays  have  re- 
spectively a  length  inversely  to  the  rapidity  of  vibra- 
tion of  from  .0000205  of  an  inch  to  .00000914  of  an 
inch,  or,  in  round  numbers,  say  20  one-millionths 
of  an  inch  for  the  extreme  red,  and  a  little  over  9 
one-millionths  of  an  inch  for  the  extreme  violet. 

These  rates  of  vibration  may  be  better  compre- 
hended when  compared  with  the  undulations  of  the 
atmosphere,  which  undulations  constitute  musical  or 
other  sounds,  audible  to  the  human  ear.  Sound  is 
produced  by  the  air  being  thrown  into  alternate  ex- 
pansion and  contraction  by  the  vibrations  of  a  string, 
metallic  surface,  or  by  the  air  itself,  if  set  vibrating 
in  a  tube  with  an  open  end.  It  propels  itself  by  alter- 
nate swellings  and  contractions,  as  it  were,  of  concen- 
tric spheres  (not  as  light  does  by  transverse  vibra- 
tions), and  travels  at  the  rate  of  1089  feet  a  second. 

*Laiigley  in  "  Barker's  Physics.'* 
126 


LIGHT  AND  SOUND 

Its  rate  of  vibration  varies  from  the  minimum  of  16 
in  a  second,  the  lowest  rate  of  audibility,  to  about 
40,000  a  second.  The  range  of  musical  notes  is 
from  32  vibrations  a  second — the  lowest  note  of  the 
organ — to  4224  vibrations,  the  upper  notes  of  the 
pianoforte,  or  4752  of  the  picolo.  The  human  voice 
ranges  from  87,  for  a  bass  voice,  to  1530  a  second,  the 
highest  soprano.  The  length  of  the  sound  wave 
varies  inversely  with  the  frequency  of  the  vibrations; 
a  high  note  has  a  shorter  length  than  a  low  one.  The 
average  wave  length  in  conversation,  for  a  man's 
voice  is  from  eight  and  one-fourth,  to  ten  feet ;  for  a 
woman's  voice  from  two  to  four  feet.  The  relative 
speeds,  therefore,  with  which  light  travels  through 
the  ether  and  sound  through  the  air  are : 

Light — 186,000  miles  in  a  second. 

Sound — 1089  feet,  or  about  one-fifth  mile  in  a 
second. 

Light  travels,  therefore,  907,000  times  faster  in 
the  ether  than  sound  does  in  the  air. 

The  number  of  vibrations  are  inversely  as  their 
length.  The  length  of  the  vibrations  of  the  violet 
rays  is  fora>  °f  an  inch  >  the  length  of  the  vibra- 
tions of  the  average  waves  of  a  woman's  voice  is 
about  three  feet ;  therefore  the  sound  waves  are  four 
million  times  longer  than  the  waves  of  light. 

The  number  of  the  vibrations  of  violet  light  being 
127 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

883  million  million  in  a  second,  and  the  fastest  known 
sound  vibrations  being,  say,  40,000  in  a  second,  light  vi- 
brations are  22,075  millions  to  one  sound  wave.  These 
relations  are  given  merely  to  show  how  almost  in- 
finitely minute  and  rapid  the  undulations  of  the  ether 
are  compared  to  those  of  the  atmosphere.  How  almost 
inconceivably  smaller  than  those  of  air  must  be  the 
ultimate  particles  of  the  ether  if  it  is  composed  of 
discrete  particles  as  all  other  forms  of  matter  are. 
How  easily,  therefore,  they  might  interpenetrate  all 
other  matter,  even  though  the  constituent  atoms  of 
the  air  and  of  fluids  are  so  minute  themselves  as  to 
escape  all  tangible  or  occular  demonstration. 

Maxwell  says  with  regard  to  the  theory  of  a  semi- 
solid  or  continuous  constitution  of  the  ether :  "  The 
theory  opposed  to  the  atomic  structure  of  the  ether 
and  of  matter,  generally  known  as  that  of  Anaxagoras, 
in  which  bodies  that  appear  to  be  homogeneous  and 
continuous  are  so  in  reality,  as  Xenophanes  taught, 
is  incapable  of  demonstration.  To  explain  the  proper- 
ties of  any  substance  by  this  theory  is  impossible. 
The  properties  of  such  substances — if  existing — could 
only  be  admitted  as  ultimate  facts."  There  is  no 
explanation,  for  it  cannot  be  explained. 

The  Vortex  theory,  suggested  by  Von  Helmholtz, 
and  elaborated  by  Sir  William  Thompson  (now  Lord 
Kelvin)  over  thirty  years  ago,  as  applicable  to  the 

128 


THEORY  OF  ETHER    VORTICES 

constitution  of  aerial  matter,  and  of  atomic  structure 
generally,  and  by  which  theory  the  permanence  and 
strength  of  the  molecular  combinations  might  seem 
to  be  assured,  has  failed,  notwithstanding  its  ingenuity 
and  beauty,  in  obtaining  corroborative  proof.  Lord 
Kelvin,  to  whom  the  Hypothesis  of  the  atomic  vortex 
rings  is  due,  lately  announced  at  a  special  meeting  of 
the  American  Philosophical  Society,  November,  1897, 
in  a  discussion  between  himself,  Prof.  Barker  and 
other  members  of  the  Society,  "that  he  had  been  un- 
able to  add  any  facts  or  suggestions  even,  to  the 
original  conception ;  and  he  was  forced  to  say  that 
he  felt  compelled  to  abandon  it  as  a  working  hypoth- 
esis, for  want  of  any  sufficient  base  for  theory,  from 
observations  or  from  experiments,  other  than  those 
of  the  smoke-rings  which  he  originally  described." 
Nevertheless,  it  offers  the  possibility  that  the  struc- 
ture of  the  chemical  atom,  and,  therefore,  of  matter, 
may  be  due  to  the  formation  of  vortex  rings  or  some 
analogue  thereof  from  the  ultimate  atoms  of  the  ether. 
As  Maxwell  writes  :  "  If  two  vortex  tubes  are  linked 
together  they  can  never  be  separated,  and  if  a  single 
vortex  tube  is  knotted  on  itself  it  can  never  become 
untied.  The  motion  at  any  instance  of  every  part  of 
the  fluid,  including  the  vortex  rings  themselves,  may 
be  accurately  represented  by  conceiving  an  electric 
current  to  occupy  the  place  of  each  vortex,  the 
9  I29 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

strength  of  the  current  being  proportionate  to  that 
of  the  ring.  .  .  .  He  who  dares  to  plant  his  feet  in 
the  path  opened  up  by  Helmboltz  and  Thompson  has 
no  other  properties  to  work  with  than  inertia,  invari- 
able density  and  perfect  mobility.  .  .  .  The  difficul- 
ties of  this  method  are  enormous,  but  the  glory  of 
surmounting  them  would  be  unique."  * 

The  theory  of  the  ether  satisfactorily  accounts  for 
the  transmission  of  light  and  heat.  The  movement 
of  the  Electric  and  Magnetic  radiant  waves  has  been 
proved  to  be  of  a  like  nature,  or  rather  radiant  heat, 
light,  electricity  and  electro-magnetism  are  forces 
essentially  identical  each  with  the  others:  they  are 
governed  by  the  same  laws  and  have  the  same 
method  of  transmission.  The  existence  of  the  Ether 
is  now  asserted  absolutely,  so  that  the  text-books  of 
our  Colleges  place  the  study  of  the  phenomena  of 
Radiant  Energy,  or  Light,  Heat,  Electricity,  Mag- 
netism, etc.,  under  the  heading  of  the  Physics  of 
the  Ether. 

Notwithstanding  the  statement  of  Clerk  Maxwell 
that  the  theory  that  attributes  a  homogeneous  and 
continuous  structure  to  the  substance  of  the  Ether  is 
impossible  of  demonstration  and  incapable  of  any 
explanation,  yet  it  is  generally  assumed  by  mathe- 
maticians that  the  Ether  consists  of  a  jelly-like  sub- 

J.  C.  Maxwell,  Enc.  Brit.  "Atom." 
130 


VARIOUS  ETHER    THEORIES 

stance,  perfectly  continuous  :  not  granular  or  molecular 
like  ordinary  matter;  subtile,  incompressible,  pervad- 
ing all  space  and  penetrating  between  the  molecules 
of  all  ordinary  matter.  It  also  possesses  rigidity,  and 
it  is  thought  in  so  far  must  be  a  solid !  It  is  with 
reason,  therefore,  that  L.  Graetz,  of  Munich,  one  of 
the  latest  mathematicians  and  writers  on  the  subject, 
and  who  apparently  accepts  this  idea  of  the  Ether 
when  free  in  space,  should  say  :  "  The  various  Ether 
theories  embrace  many  imperfections.  Properties  are 
attributed  to  it  that  are  widely  different  from  those 
of  any  other  known  bodies."  * 

Even  in  the  ideas  of  the  same  person  views  are 
held  absolutely  incompatible  one  with  another.  It 
is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  Ether  should  possess 
properties  similar  to  other  known  bodies,  but  the 
properties  as  attributed  to  it  by  any  theory  should 
not  be  self-contradictory  or  otherwise  impossible.  All 
theories,  however,  of  whatever  kind,  as  well  as  our 
daily  experiences,  agree  in  asserting  its  exemption 
from  all  gravitic  action.  This  condition  is  not  an 

*  Den  versehiedenen  Ether  Theorien  aber  haften  noch  vielen  Un- 
volkomraerheiten  an,  es  werden  in  ihnen  dem  Ether  Eigenschaften 
beigelegt  die  ganz  abweichend  von  den  Eigenschaften  der  sonst  be- 
kannten  Korper.  Daher  gehort  der  quasilabile  Ether  Lord  Kel- 
vin's; ferner  der  quasirigide  Ether  derselben,  den  auch  Sommerfeld 
und  Reiff  so  wie  Bolzmann  acceptiren,  und  dem  Sommerfeld  ausser 
dem,  in  den  Leitern,  Quasi  viscoscitat  zugeschrieben  wird. 

Annalen  der  Physik,  No.  6,  1901.  L.  Graetz,  Miinchen,  Marz, 
1901. 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

assumption,   for  the  very  definition   of   the  Ether 
separates  it  from  all  ponderable  matter. 

The  theory  proposed  by  L.  Graetz  is  that  the 
Ether,  though  an  elastic,  solid  body  when  free  in 
space,  yet  in  the  interstices  of  ponderable  matter  under- 
goes a  process  of  dilation  and  expansion  consequent 
upon  the  reciprocal  action  and  reaction  between  it 
and  the  molecules  of  matter,  which  he  attributes  to 
the  electrostatic  energy  of  the  ponderable  molecules. 
He  speaks  of  the  kinetic  energy  of  the  Ether,  but 
brings  no  evidence  thereof  or  of  its  mode  of  action. 
He  considers  the  phenomena  of  static  and  motor 
electricity  as  essentially  those  of  ponderable  molecular 
matter,  in  which  the  Ether  plays  only  a  secondary 
part.  The  origin  of  the  reciprocal  actions  between 
the  molecules  and  the  Ether  is  attributed  to  the  mole- 
cules of  ponderable  matter,  but  no  cause  for  or 
origin  of  the  needed  energy  is  assigned  or  suggested. 
The  same  difficulty  applies  to  any  modification  of  a 
theory  of  a  solid  continuous  Ether.  Whence  and 
when  can  energy  arise  ? 

THE  ATOMIC  THEORY  OF  THE  ETHER  here 
given  is  essentially  that  of  Le  Sage  and  of  Preston, 
to  which  the  present  writer  has  added  the  conception 
of  the  IONS  as  being  the  cause  of  Static  electricity, 
The  Ether  is  supposed  to  be  composed  of  molecule^ 
consisting  of  two  atoms  of  non-gravitic  matter  possess^ 

132 


ATOMIC   THEORY  OF  THE  ETHER 

ing  polarity,  the  Ions  of  the  molecule,  but  which 
united  in  a  molecule  moves  and  acts  as  a  unit.  These 
molecules  are  extremely  small  and  move  in  all  direc- 
tions with  enormous  rapidity  through  free  paths 
exceeding  even  planetary  distances  in  length ;  they 
are  individually,  absolutely  elastic,  are  relatively 
close  together  and  move  with  such  extreme  swift- 
ness that  with  their  excessive  minuteness  they  inter- 
penetrate the  interstices  of  all  ponderable  matter. 
They  are  of  infinite  number  and  of  uniform  nature. 
According  to  Newton's  first  law,  that  of  Inertia, 
their  rapid  translatory  motion  is  self-inherent;  that 
is  to  say,  not  dependent  upon  any  other  pre-existent 
motion  for  their  continuance.  According  to  his 
second  law,  that  of  Motion,  any  change  of  motion 
must  be  proportional  to  the  force  applied  and  in  a 
straight  line  in  the  direction  of  the  altering  force. 
They  thus  form  in  free  space  a  consistent  isotropic 
medium  of  extreme  tenuity,  but  which,  owing  to  the 
enormous  velocity  of  its  molecules,  possesses  great 
rigidity,  since  the  moving  corpuscles,  having  a 
momentum  equal  to  their  individual  mass  multi- 
plied by  the  square  of  their  velocity,  will  require  a 
force  as  great  as  their  own  to  deflect  them  at  right 
angles  from  their  path  and  position.  This  velocity 
must  at  least  equal  that  of  the  supposed  corpuscles 
in  the  Kathodic  rays,  which  J.  J.  Thompson  estimates 
133 


THE  PATH  OP  EVOLVTIOtf 

at  40,000  kilometers  a  second,  though  probably  much 
greater.*  Thus  constituted  the  Ether  forms  the  me- 
dium whose  vibrations  produce  the  phenomena  of  radi- 
ant heat,  light  and  electricity  in  a  manner  somewhat 
analogous  to  the  transfer  of  sound  by  waves  of  the 
air.  The  air  is  known  to  be  composed  of  gaseous 
molecules  moving  in  all  directions  with  great  rapidity, 
but  yet  it  acts  as  a  molar  medium  to  receive  and 
transmit  together  without  confusion  the  often  varied 
and  extremely  complicated  vibrations  that  constitute 
Sound.  Thus  the  Ether  somewhat  resembles  a  gas, 
but  differs  therefrom  by  being  throughout  of  uniform 
density  and  in  being  non-compressible,  since  it  pene- 
trates through  all  bodies  and  cannot  be  confined ;  nor 
can  it  be  compressed  as  air  is  by  its  own  mass,  for  it 
is  not  ponderable  matter,  not  being  affected  by 
gravity.  The  vibrations  of  radiant  heat,  light,  etc., 
which  it  transmits  are  transverse  vibrations — per- 
pendicular to  the  line  of  transition  (not  like  the 
aerial  vibrations  that  constitute  sound,  the  waves  of 
which  are  in  the  line  of  transition  and  are  like  the  alter- 
nate swellings  and  contractions  of  concentric  spheres). 
It  is  this  fact,  that  the  ether ic  waves  are  transverse 
vibrations,  that  has  seemed  to  require  that  the  Ether 
should  possess  the  incomprehensible  kind  of  solidity 
often  ascribed  to  it,  so  that  it  might  have  the  desired 

*  The  latest  experiments  (1902)  give  about  half  that  of  light. 
'34 


ATOMIC  THEORY  OF  THE  ETHER 

rigidity  to  receive  and  transmit  the  transverse  vi- 
brations of  light,  etc.  But  an  even  greater  rigid- 
ity would  be  presented  by  the  kinetic  structure 
of  the  Ether  as  here  assumed,  for,  commensurate 
with  the  size  and  rapidity  of  motion  of  its  molecules, 
it  would  offer  greater  resistance  to  any  change  of  posi- 
tion or  motion  than  would  be  possible  with  the  con- 
ditions of  a  jelly-like  impalpable  solid.  The  vibra- 
tions that  constitute  Light,  etc.,  seem  always  to 
arise  from  pre-existing  vibration  in  heated  ponder- 
able bodies:  they  have  been  long  studied  and  are 
well  known.  They  do  not  require  now  to  be  con- 
sidered, though  their  origin  will  be  so  later. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  the  phenomena  pre- 
sented by  Static  Electricity  are  closely  connected  with 
the  Ether,  but  in  what  way  and  what  is  the  nature 
and  origin  thereof  are  questions  very  imperfectly 
answered.  Hertz's  experiments  have  demonstrated 
the  identity  of  radiant  electric  waves  with  those  of 
light  and  heat,  differing  only  in  their  greater  length 
and  consequent  slower  vibration ;  but  of  Static 
Electricity  we  have  yet  much  to  learn.  The  atomic 
theory  of  the  ether  should  throw  some  light  upon  it. 
It  is  admitted  under  every  theory  suggested  that  all 
ponderable  substances  are  inter-penetrated  by  the 
Ether,  which  fills  the  intervals  between  their  corpus- 
cles. With  a  continuous  jelly-like  or  solid  ether  no 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

interaction  between  the  substance  of  the  latter  and 
the  corporeal  molecules  of  ponderable  matter  other 
than  the  possible  transmission  of  heat  by  contact 
seems  probable,  for,  being  a  continuous  substance,  it 
would  have  no  power  of  motion  or  change  of  place. 

The  Atomic  Theory  of  the  Ether  supposes  its 
molecules  to  be  composed — as  most  ponderable  mole- 
cules are — of  two  atoms,  their  Ions,  each  possessing 
strong  affinities  for  the  other ;  the  one  having  positive 
polarity,  the  other  negative  polarity ;.  united  in  the 
sense  and  in  the  manner  that  chemical  substances 
unite  (for  instance,  a  molecule  of  free  Oxygen  is 
composed  of  its  two  Ions — one  atom  each  of  oxygen 
united  into  one  molecule).  When  the  rapidly  moving 
ether  molecules  come  in  contact  with  the  earth  or 
other  ponderable  matter  their  motion  would  be 
arrested  in  part  or  in  whole.  Some  of  the  molecules 
might  pass  through  the  substance,  or  mass,  and  con- 
tinue their  course  unimpeded  or  with  lessened  motion ; 
another  part  would  transfer  their  motion  to  the  arrest- 
ing molecules,  partly  as  heat,  and  would  cause  in 
them  those  peculiar  molecular  vibrations  that  we 
know  all  matter  to  possess,  whether  gaseous,  fluid  or 
solid.  Still  another,  and  perhaps  the  larger  portion 
would  continue  translatory  motion,  but  with  far 
lessened  speed,  in  driving  onward  or  inward  the 
ponderable  molecules  or  masses;  the  energy  of  the 

136 


THE  IONS   OF  THE  ETHER 

rapidly  moving  ether  molecule  being  thus  trans- 
formed, but  never  lost.  Lastly,  the  ether  molecules 
themselves  thus  brought  into  intimate  contact  with 
ponderable  matter  would  be  dissociated  by  these  changes 
of  energy  into  their  Ions,  which,  acting  inductively 
upon  the  Ions  of  ponderable  matter  according  to  their 
chemical  nature  and  polarity,  would  remain  in  con- 
tact therewith,  though  lightly  held,  or,  finding  better 
conductors  near,  pass  off  into  the  earth  and  dis- 
appear. In  this  manner  all  bodies  of  different 
chemical  structure  would  retain  what  might  be  called 
adhering  dissociated  ether  atoms  of  opposite  polarities 
to  their  own.  If  in  contact  with  other  bodies  or 
with  the  earth,  the  Ether  Ions  held  by  one  substance 
would  induce  the  opposite  polarity  in  the  other  sub- 
stance ;  consequently  the  polarities  would  be  balanced  ; 
but  on  removing  the  one  body,  which  would  require 
force  or  energy  to  do,  the  polarity  of  the  Ether  Ions 
will  be  unbalanced.  The  Ether  atoms  of  one  of 
them  will  flow  to  the  earth  ;  those  of  the  other,  if  it  is 
a  poor  conductor,  will  remain  unbalanced  and  lightly 
adhering,  consequently  show  Static  Electricity  !  For 
this  reason  the  forcible  displacement  of  dissimilar 
bodies  always  manifests  Electricity.  A  well  known 
and  established  fact. 

The  question  why  and  how  does  a  metal  convey 
electricity  offers   another   problem.      All   substances 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

are  to  some  extent  conductors.  No  substance  is  ab- 
solutely a  non-conductor.  It  is  a  difference  in  de- 
gree— though  there  is  a  very  great  difference.  It  is 
known  that  in  all  conductors  the  current  passes  on 
the  surface  or  outside  of  the  wire — not  through  the 
substance  or  central  mass  thereof.  The  said  con- 
ductor or  other  electrified  body  is  surrounded  by 
what  may  be  called  an  atmosphere,  better  known  as 
an  "  Electric  field."  This  may  be  its  origin  :  When 
the  Ether  atoms  are  stopped  or  checked  by  matter  in 
their  path,  they  must  be  differently  affected  by  the 
nature  of  the  opposing  body.  Some  substances  will 
more  easily  permit  their  onward  passage  than  others. 
Those  that  are  best  fitted  by  their  inherent  structure, 
or  by  their  Ions,  to  arrest  the  onward  move  of  the 
Ether  atoms  by  converting  their  energy  into  the 
molecular  vibrations  of  ponderable  matter,  will  neces- 
sarily be  surrounded  by  a  greater  number  of  quies- 
cent or  partially  quiescent  dissociated  ethereal  Ions, 
while  poor  conductors  would  have  but  few  thereof. 
These  quiescent  Ions  would  soon  again  be  brought  into 
motion  by  other  free  moving  Ether  atoms,  and  with 
them  be  swept  away ;  but  the  rain  of  Ether  atoms  is 
incessant,  and  the  electric  field  would  be  quickly  re- 
cruited by  countless  thousands  of  other  dissociated 
Ions  replacing  those  that  have  moved  away.  The 
Ions  of  an  unbalanced  electric  charge — such  as  lately 
138 


THE  IONS  Of  THE  ETHER 

described — whether  positive  or  negative,  would  run 
witli  lightning  speed  through  this  accumulation  of 
Ions,  each  one  inducing  opposite  polarity  in  those  in 
advance  of  it.  If  the  terminus  of  the  positive  wire 
is  the  anode  of  a  galvanic  battery,  the  Ions  thus  de- 
veloped will  effect  the  usual  decomposition  of  the 
electrolyte ;  or,  if  otherwise  connected,  give  an  electric 
current. 

It  is  probable  that  the  pressure  of  the  dissociated 
ether  atoms  is  the  cause  of  the  firm  adherence  of  air 
or  other  gases  to  the  surface  of  all  solids,  which,  as 
Gmelin  states,  is  so  strong  that  they  cannot  be  re- 
moved by  exposure  in  a  vacuum.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  adhering  gases  can  only  be  removed  from 
barometer  tubes  by  boiling  the  mercury  therein.  The 
Torricellian  Vacuum  cannot  dislodge  them.  The 
application  of  the  heat  of  ebullition,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  molar  vibrations  of  the  ether,  readily  re- 
move all  traces  of  the  adhering  gases. 

It  may  be  urged  that  the  general  formula — "  The 
energy  of  the  moving  Ether  molecules  equals  half  of 
their  mass,  multiplied  by  the  square  of  their  velocity  " 
— is  inapplicable  to  the  Ether  molecules,  inasmuch 
as  by  the  definition  of  the  Ether  it  has  no  mass  in 
the  sense  of  weight.  It  is  not  ponderable  matter ;  its 
molecules  would  not  have  mass.  Consequently,  under 
the  above  formula,  the  mass  being  0  (Zero),  their 

139 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

momentum  and  energy  would  also  be  zero.  In  a 
mathematical  equation  this  necessarily  would  be  true, 
but  the  fallacy  involved  is  the  ascription  of  the 
terras  of  gravity  to  a  non-gravitic  body. 

Because  all  ponderable  masses,  gases  included,  are 
subject  to  and  are  measured  by  the  so-called  attrac- 
tion of  gravitation,  it  does  not  follow  that  a  form  of 
matter  cannot  exist  that  is  not  so  attracted  or  acted 
upon,  though  otherwise  like  matter  in  general.  If 
it  is  assumed  that  the  translatory  motion  of  the  e.ther 
molecules  are  the  cause  of  gravitation,  it  is  self-evident 
that  the  molecules  themselves  that  cause  gravitation 
cannot  be  affected  by  gravity,  for  the  same  reason 
that  the  isotropic  vibrations  of  the  molar  Ether,  con- 
stituting radiant  heat,  light  and  electricity,  do  not 
and  cannot  heat  or  otherwise  affect  the  intermediary 
ether  through  which  they  pass,  not  even  warming  the 
transparent  air  (if  pure)  with  the  molecules  of  which 
the  Ether  is  mingled.  In  other  respects  the  proper- 
ties of  the  molecules  would  resemble  those  of  other 
matter,  though  of  great  tenuity.  They  would  have  a 
definite  size,  volume,  impenetrability,  atomic  struc- 
ture and  polarity ;  they  would  be  subject  to  the  same 
laws  in  relation  to  momentum  and  energy  that  govern 
other  matter,  though  these  relations  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed in  the  terms  applicable  only  to  ponderable 
matter.  Apparently  the  Ether  atoms,  like  the  gases 

140 


THE  ETHER  ATOMS 

lately  discovered — Argon,  Helium,  Xenon,  Krypton 
and  Neon — are  devoid  of  chemical  affinities,  though 
in  the  absence  of  weight  the  numerical  relation  of  the 
Ether  atoms  to  those  of  ponderable  atoms  would  be 
impossible  to  discover.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  theory  of  a  solid  ether  presupposes  likewise 
that  it  is  not  gravitic. 

141 


CHAPTER  XII 

GRAVITATION  AND   THE   PROPERTIES   OF  MATTER — 
THE  KINETIC  THEORY  AND  NATURE  OF  GASES. 

THE  phenomena  of  Gravitation  remain  still  un- 
explained. The  ordinary  conception  of  gravitation  is 
that  it  is  the  attraction  or  drawing  together  (from 
"Attrahere,"  to  draw  to)  of  one  body  towards  another. 
It  seems  impossible  to  explain  this  drawing  action  of 
mass  acting  upon  mass.  A  solid  ether  without 
movement  cannot  explain  it,  and  the  atomic  theory 
of  the  ether  can  do  little  if  any  more.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  the  same  movement  of  two  bodies 
towards  each  other  can  be  produced  by  pressure  ex- 
erted from  outward  towards  each  other  in  the  straight 
line  of  their  respective  centres.  It  is  probable  that 
in  all  cases  where  apparent  attraction  exists,  or  even 
its  opposite,  repulsion,  that  the  real  motive  force  is 
that  of  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  medium ;  the 
difficulty  is  to  demonstrate  the  existence  and  the 
cause  of  the  external  pressure.  The  laws  or  con- 
ditions under  which  gravity  or  the  attraction  of  gravi^ 

142 


THE    CAUSE    OF  GRAVITATION 

tation  manifests  itself  are  well  known.  That  it  acts 
upon  all  matter  directly  as  the  mass,  and  inversely  as 
the  square  of  the  distance  between  centres,  and  that 
a  falling  body  near  this  earth  moves  with  a  constantly 
accelerating  speed  of  nearly  thirty-two  feet  per  second. 
But  what  is  gravity  ?  What  is  the  force  that  acts 
and  causes  one  mass  of  matter  to  move  towards 
another  mass,  or  when  in  contact  presses  them  forcibly 
together?  It  is  a  question  so  difficult  to  answer — 
if  it  can,  even  in  part,  be  answered  at  all — that  in 
the  modern  text-books  of  Physics  no  attempt  is  made 
to  explain  it.  Prof.  Barker,  however,  states:  "A 
study  of  other  forms  of  attraction  has  resulted  in  con- 
centrating the  attention  more  closely  upon  the  Ether 
intervening  between  the  two  attracting  bodies  than 
upon  the  bodies  themselves.  .  .  .  Whatever  the  seat 
of  the  energy,  however,  whether  in  the  attracting 
masses  themselves  or  in  the  surrounding  medium, 
the  general  attraction  which  is  exerted  between  masses 
of  matter  has  received  the  name  of  gravitation,  while 
that  exerted  between  the  earth  and  bodies  upon  its 
surface  is  called  gravity." 

The  reasons  why  the  study  of  the  causes  of  gravi- 
tation has  made  so  little  progress  are  twofold :  First, 
the  knowledge  of  the  laws  that  govern  its  action  is  so 
accurate,  and  so  fully  satisfies  all  the  demands  for  the 
practical  application  thereof,  that  investigation  into 

143 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

its  abstract  nature  becomes  to  most  men  a  matter  of 
indifference,  or  a  question  of  ontological  interest  only ; 
and  secondly,  the  inherent  difficulties  in  the  attempt ! 
We  are  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the  effects  of 
gravitation,  and  our  every  movement  and  action 
helped  or  hindered  thereby  ;  yet  it,  of  all  the  phenom- 
ena around  us,  is  the  only  one  that  we  can  in  no  way 
change,  influence  or  direct.  No  human  contrivance 
can  increase  or  diminish  its  force  or  its  rate  of  accelera- 
tive  motion.  Magnetic  attraction,  that  varies  also 
inversely  with  the  square  of  the  distance,  can  over- 
power its  force,  but  only  as  a  cord  might  drag  or 
hold  up  a  body  that  else  would  fall ;  but  it  can  in 
no  wise  be  correlated  therewith.  Countless  experi- 
ments have  been  tried  by  means  of  heat,  chemical 
action  and  otherwise,  to  modify  the  phenomena  that 
gravitation  presents,  but  all  with  negative  results. 
It  has  been  impossible  to  apply  inductive  and  em- 
pirical reasoning  thereto.  The  only  hope  of  success 
lies  in  the  deductive  method  :  assuming  an  a-priori 
hypothesis  and  testing  its  validity  by  the  few  known 
facts  we  may  possess. 

The  only  hypothesis  of  the  cause  of  gravitation 
that,  in  the  opinion  of  J.  Clerk  Maxwell,  "  was  in- 
genious, and  that  has  been  so  far  developed  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  attacked  and  defended,"  has  been 
already  mentioned  under  the  title  of  the  Atomic 

144 


THE   CAUSE    OF  GRAVITATION 

Theory  of  the  Ether,  formulated  by  George  Louis 
Le-Sage  ;  born  in  Geneva,  1724  ;  died  there  in  1803. 
He  adopted  and  perfected  the  ideas  of  Leucippus  and 
Democritus  concerning  the  atoms.  These  theories  he 
published  under  the  title  of  the  "  Lucrece  New- 
tonian "  in  the  "  Memoires  de  P  Academic  Royal," 
Berlin,  1782.  The  latter  treatise  served  as  a  basis 
npon  which  S.  Tolver  Preston  *  has  expanded  the 
supposition  of  Le-Sage  into  the  present  theory  as 
already  described,  and  also  as  being  the  cause  of  grav- 
itation. The  Ether  is  supposed  to  be  composed  of 
ultimate  atoms.  They  are  excessively  minute  and 
move  with  extreme  swiftness,  constituting  a  medium 
somewhat  of  the  nature  of  a  gas  (the  properties  of 
gases  will  be  described  later),  but  in  which  the  par- 
ticles are  almost  infinitely  small,  and  move  in  all 
directions  with  a  swiftness  greater  perhaps  than  the 
transmissions  of  light  itself.  These  particles  move 
through  free  paths  of  possibly  greater  length  than 
even  planetary  distances.  It  is  known  that  the  speed 
of  motion  and  the  length  of  the  free  path  of  a  cor- 
puscle— i.  e.j  the  distance  it  can  move  without  col- 
lision with  another  corpuscle — is  inversely  to  the 
square  of  the  size  or  diameter  of  the  corpuscles. 

*  London,  Edinburgh  and  Dublin  Philosophical  Magazine  and 
Journal  of  Science,  1877,  et  seq.  See  also  the  Encyclopedia  Brittanica, 
9th  Edit. 

10  145 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

Clausius  states :  "  The  mean  length  of  the  free  path 
of  the  particles  of  a  gas  increases  in  proportion  as  the 
square  of  the  diameter  of  the  particle  diminishes. 
By  assuming  the  particles  to  be  small  enough,  the 
mean  length  of  its  path  may  be  increased  to  any  ex- 
tent. A-priori,  one  size  of  particles  is  as  probable 
as  another.  The  minute  size  and  high  velocity 
would  render  it  possible  that  no  disturbance  would 
be  caused  amongst  the  molecules  of  ordinary  matter. 
This  high  velocity  is  necessary  to  accord  with  the 
known  facts  of  gravity.  Sir  William  Thomson  has 
pointed  out  that  the  distance  through  which  gravity 
is  affected  (i.  e.,  that  one  body  should  act  upon  or  at- 
tract another)  is  dependent  upon  the  mean  length  of 
the  path  of  the  particles.  By  assuming  the  distance 
of  the  fixed  stars  (not  a  star  and  its  planets)  to  be  a 
multiple  of  the  mean  path,  it  would  result  that  the 
stars  would  not  gravitate  towards  each  other,  thus 
satisfying  the  condition  for  the  stability  of  the 
universe."  The  assumption  that  all  the  bodies  of  the 
Universe  are  gravitating  towards  each  other  is  evi- 
dently inconsistent  with  the  stability  of  the  stellar 
bodies,  each  of  which  probably  has  a  planetary  system 
of  its  own.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  gravitic 
ether  has  not  the  same  modus  operandi  at  all  dis- 
tances, but  that  the  individual  particles  would  col- 
lide with  others  at  the  end  of  their  free  paths  at  all 
146 


THE   CAUSE    OF  GRAVITATION 

possible  distances  between  the  stars,  and  if  perfectly 
elastic  would  retrace  their  paths  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion. As  gravitation  acts  inversely  as  the  square  of 
the  distance,  and  as  the  nearest  star  is  at  least  300,000 
times  farther  from  the  sun,  and  probably  from  other 
stars,  than  the  earth  is  from  the  sun,  gravitation  be- 
tween the  nearest  star  and  the  earth  would  be  only 
one  ninety  thousand  millionth  (ao^oopoo)  Par*  of  the 
force  that  holds  the  earth  in  its  orbit  around  the 
sun.  We  know  that  gravitation  acts  between  these 
remote  stellar  suns  and  their  planets:  it  is  shown 
by  the  occlusion  of  light  in  the  instance  of  the  so- 
called  variable  stars,  caused,  beyond  question,  by  a 
large  planet  interposing  itself  between  the  star  and 
our  line  of  vision.  The  phenomena  of  the  double 
stars  may  also  have  a  like  explanation  ;  but  too  little 
is  known  as  yet  concerning  them  to  formulate  a 
theory  thereon.  Before  further  considering  the 
dynamic  action  of  gravity  it  is  necessary  to  give  a 
short  statement  of  the  PHYSICAL  CONSTITUTION 

OF    MATTER. 

All  matter  is  believed  to  be  composed  of  molecules, 
or  groups  of  atoms,  of  a  determinate  character,  shape 
and  size,  which,  though  minute,  far  below  our  power 
of  vision  aided  even  by  any  microscope,  are  yet  vastly 
larger  than  the  atoms  that  compose  the  ether. 

The  atoms  of  matter  are  the  chemical  atoms  or 
147 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

elements.  When  combined  with  one  another  they 
form  molecules  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
gases,  are  grouped  into  coherent  bodies  having  an  open 
or  cellular  structure,  by  which  the  molecule,  though 
retaining  its  position  in  the  mass,  can  and  does  vi- 
brate throughout  its  substance.  This  structure  is 
evident  from  the  greater  or  lesser  elasticity  of  all 
bodies,  and  by  the  action  of  heat,  which  increases  the 
rate  of  vibration  and  the  distance  between  the  mo- 
lecules, and  expands  the  body.  This  structure  is 
called  a  solid  body. 

When  a  solid  is  heated  to  a  certain  temperature, 
that  varies  with  its  chemical  composition,  the  vibra- 
tions increase  so  greatly  as  to  overcome  the  cohesion 
of  the  molecules  to  each  other  (if  their  chemical  com- 
binations are  not  altered  at  that  temperature),  so  that 
the  molecules  are  free  to  move  around  and  about 
each  other,  though  the  vacuities  between  them  are  not 
decreased,  but  rather  are  increased  in  size  and  num- 
ber; in  other  words,  the  matter  melts  or  becomes  a 
fluid. 

If  the  temperature  is  raised  still  higher,  the  mo- 
lecules part  entirely  from  each  other ;  not  only  cease, 
absolutely,  to  cohere  to  each  other,  but  seem  to  be 
mutually  repellent,  and  fly  away  from  each  other ;  in 
other  words,  they  boil  and  become  vapors,  or,  if  away 
from  contact  with  the  engendering  fluid,  and  not  sur- 

148 


KINETIC   THEORY  OF  GASES 

rounded  by  bodies  cooler  than  their  temperature  of 
formation,  they  become  Permanent  gases.  The  tem- 
peratures at  which  these  changes  occur  vary  from  the 
critical  (or  liquifying)  point  of  Hydrogen — 436°  F. 
(or  24°  above  the  Absolute  Zero,  when  all  heat  dis- 
appears,) to  that  of  Platinum,  which  melts  at  3234° 
F.,  and  vaporizes  at  a  temperature  somewhat  higher. 
The  kinetic  properties  of  a  gas  are  as  follows  :  A  gas 
consists  of  molecules  of  a  substance  that  at  the  existing 
temperature  and  atmospheric  pressure  retain  their 
aerial  condition — i.  e.,  have  no  tendency  to  assume 
the  liquid  or  solid  state.  The  molecules  of  which 
they  consist  have  a  definite  size  and  number,  being 
for  every  gas  all  exactly  alike.  The  number  of  mo- 
lecules in  every  gas  of  any  constitution  is  exactly  the 
same  at  the  same  temperature  and  pressure,  but  they 
vary  in  weight,  or,  as  it  is  now  called,  in  mass,  with 
the  weight  or  mass  of  the  respective  molecules,  and 
thus  constitute  the  specific  gravity  of  the  gas.  These 
molecules  are  in  constant,  active  motion,  moving  in 
straight  lines  in  all  directions,  with  uniform  speed, 
until  checked  by  some  cause.  These  causes  may  be  : 
1st.  Encounters  with  one  another,  when,  each  being 
elastic,  they  rebound  and  move  again  in  straight 
lines  in  their  new  direction  until  a  new  encounter ; 
and  so,  "  da  capo."  2d.  By  impinging  against  the  walls 
of  the  containing  and  retaining  vessel.  The  impact 
149 


TtfE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

of  the  molecules  and  their  momentum  produces  a  pres- 
sure tending  to  force  away  the  solid  walls,  which  ten- 
dency is  counterbalanced  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  on 
the  outside,  if  at  normal  atmospheric  pressure,  or  by  the 
rigidity  and  tension  of  the  retaining  walls,  if  the  in- 
ward pressure  is  greater  or  less  than  the  normal.  The 
effect  of  these  movements  is  that  the  bulk  or  volume 
of  a  gas  of  any  composition  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  of 
the  pressure  at  the  same  temperature.  If  the  vessel 
is  air-tight  the  bulk  will  diminish  one-half  by 
doubling  the  pressure,  or  will  increase  proportionately 
in  volume  if  the  confining  pressure  is  reduced.  If  a 
gas  is  not  restrained  by  confinement  in  a  closed  vessel, 
its  molecules  continue  moving  away  in  right  lines  in- 
definitely. If  we  apply  the  above  statements  to  the 
gases  of  the  atmosphere,  we  find  that  the  atmosphere 
(which  exerts  a  pressure  of  about  fifteen  pounds  to 
the  square  inch)  if  viewed  as  of  a  uniform  volume 
and  density  must  have  an  average  height  or  depth  of 
about  five  miles  ;  but,  as  it  expands  in  proportion  as 
the  distance  from  the  earth  increases,  being  released 
in  part  from  the  pressure  of  its  own  mass,  it  probably 
reaches  actually  a  height  of  200  miles  or  more.  No 
means  are  known  of  correctly  ascertaining  its  limit. 
Its  expansion  may  be  ultimately  checked  by  the  ex- 
treme cold  of  the  upper  aerial  regions,  which  must 
approximate  or  attain  the  absolute  zero;  it  might 
15° 


KINETIC   THEORY  OF  GASES 

cease  then  to  be  a  gas,  but  would  become  liquid  or 
solid ;  or  the  effect  of  gravitation  upon  the  diffused 
molecules  may  overcome  their  dispersive  motion,  which 
may  be  inherent  in  themselves  or  more  probably  be 
caused  by  contact  with  the  ever-moving  ether  atoms. 
It  should  be  noticed  that  the  normal  pressure ;  that 
is,  the  actual  weight  of  nearly  fifteen  pounds  per 
square  inch  of  the  aerial  molecules  of  the  atmosphere 
pressing  upon  our  bodies,  is  absolutely  outside  of  and 
beyond  our  consciousness,  even  though  the  molecules, 
independent  of  their  pressure,  actually  are  striking 
us  with  the  velocity  of  nearly  1500  feet  per  second. 
The  pressure  is  uniform  inside  and  outside  through- 
out our  frame,  and,  being  alike  in  all  directions,  is 
unfelt  by  us.  It  is  only  when  the  pressure  is  with- 
drawn from  one  side  of  our  hand  or  other  portion  of 
our  body,  by  means  of  removing  the  air  with  an  air- 
pump  or  other  similar  device,  that  we  can  realize  that 
the  weight  or  pressure  of  upwards  of  30,000  to  40,000 
pounds  is  actually  distributed  over  our  body. 

In  all  such  objective  phenomena  the  testimony  of 
our  senses  is  fallacious.  The  revolution  of  the  earth 
on  its  axis,  when  first  announced,  seemed  opposed  to 
our  common  sense,  was  absurd  and  heretical.  Lord 
Bacon  so  considered  it.  The  lapse  of  time  has  recon- 
ciled us  to  the  thought,  and  it  has  ceased  to  seem 
strange  to  us;  yet  each  true  new  theory  goes  to  some  ex- 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tent  through  the  same  course — ridiculed  at  first,  then 
decried,  but  ultimately  accepted. 

From  the  above  description  of  the  physics  of  a 
gas — known  as  the  Kynetic  theory  of  gases — and  so 
fully  demonstrated  as  to  be  universally  accepted,  the 
analogy  between  its  fundamental  principles  and  those 
required  for  the  properties  of  the  Atomic  theory  of 
the  Ether  are  evident.  The  atmosphere,  though 
composed  of  molecules  moving  in  all  directions  with 
great  speed  and  with  much  force,  as  shown  by  their 
dynamic  action  on  the  walls  that  confine  them,  yet 
responds  as  a  whole,  as  an  isotropic  or  a  consistent 
medium  or  fluid  to  the  vibrations  of  a  cord,  bell,  or 
other  body,  and  transmits  the  varied  and  complicated 
molar  vibrations,  waves,  or  alternate  contractions  and 
expansions  that,  affecting  our  auditory  nerves,  con- 
stitute musical  and  articulate  sound. 

In  somewhat  the  same  manner  we  may  consider 
the  transverse  molar  vibrations  of  the  Ether  that 
constitute  light,  heat,  etc.,  to  be  the  phenomena  of  the 
Ether,  considered  as  a  consistent  isotropic  substance  or 
medium ;  whilst  the  particles  that  compose  it,  con- 
sidered separately,  are  very  close  together,  almost  in- 
finitely small,  are  infinitely  numerous,  and  are  mov- 
ing with  a  swiftness  greater  than  the  waves  of  light, 
probably  in  the  ratio  that  the  ultimate  molecules  of 
air  move  swifter  than  the  waves  of  sound. 

152 


KINETICS   OF  THE  ETHER. 

To  return  to  the  hypothesis  of  the  Atomic  theory 
of  the  Ether  as  explaining  thereby  the  cause  of  gravi- 
tation. 

The  atoms  of  the  Ether  are  supposed  to  be,  as 
before  described,  moving  through  all  space  equally 
swiftly  and  in  all  directions.  A  mass  of  matter  is 
known  to  be  a  congeries  of  molecules,  in  which  the 
spaces  between  the  contiguous  molecules,  considered 
as  spheres,  are  far  greater  than  the  space  actually 
occupied  by  the  molecule.  This  ratio  between  the 
vacuous  interval  and  the  solid  molecule  becomes 
greater  in  proportion  as  the  size  of  the  molecule  is 
diminished.  (The  vortex  theory  of  Lord  Kelvin,  if 
tenable,  would,  of  course,  enormously  increase  the 
vacuous  spaces.)  "  Tait  assumes  that  it  is  probable 
that  the  molecule  itself  does  not  occupy  as  much  as 
five  per  cent,  of  the  whole  space."  The  Ether  pene- 
trates into  or  occupies  the  space  between  the  mo- 
lecules of  all  bodies,  through  which  it  passes  owing 
to  the  extreme  relative  as  well  as  the  absolute  small- 
ness  of  its  atoms,  as  air  would  pass  through  the  in- 
terstices of  a  fishing  net  or  of  a  sponge.  The  aggre- 
gate molecules  of  a  body  isolated  in  the  Ether  of 
interstellar  space  would  be  subjected  to  the  concus- 
sions of  the  ethereal  atoms  moving  from  all  directions 
with  almost  inconceivable  swiftness,  and  with  an 
energy  proportionate  to  the  square  of  the  velocity  of 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

the  atoms,  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  molecules 
of  a  gas,  though  moving  much  slower,  impinge  upon 
the  walls  of  the  vessel  that  confines  them.  These 
concussions  or  impulsions  thus  manifesting  them- 
selves as  a  pressure,  coming  from  all  directions 
equally,  would  impel  the  material  molecules  of  the 
aforesaid  body,  throw  them  into  vibratory  move- 
ment— if  the  mass  were  solid  or  liquid — and  into 
translatory  vibration,  if  gaseous ;  in  all  instances  exert- 
ing an  impulsion  of  the  particles  of  the  mass  towards 
its  own  centre.  This  impulsion  or  pressure  consti- 
tutes what  we  call  weighty  and  is  greater  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  mass — i.  e.,  as  the  number  of  the 
molecules  in  any  body  kept  in  vibration  is  greater, 
and  the  motion  of  the  ethereal  atoms  proportionally 
checked.  The  mass  of  this  Earth  determines  there- 
fore the  proportion  in  which  in  it  is  absorbed  the 
motive  force  of  the  Ether  atoms,  moving  to  it  from 
any  and  all  directions,  leaving,  in  consequence,  fewer 
atoms  from  the  direction  of  the  earth  to  oppose  the 
motion  of  another  and  separate  body.  Thus,  a  fall- 
ing stone,  for  instance,  would  find  less  resistance  from 
the  impulse  of  the  atoms  towards  the  centre  of  the 
earth,  than  from  all  other  directions,  and  it  would, 
therefore,  move  in  the  line  of  least  resistance.  Since 
the  translatory  motion  of  the  Ether  atoms  must  ex- 
ceed that  of  light,  say,  183,000  miles  a  second,  the 


KINETICS  OF  THE  ETHER 

movement  of  the  falling  body,  whatever  might  be 
its  rate  of  actual  motion,  would  be  relatively  thereto 
so  slow  that  it  would  be,  as  it  were,  practically  at  rest. 
The  impact  from  the  Ether  atoms  would  therefore  be 
sensibly  constant  in  their  impulsive  action  upon  the  fall- 
ing body,  thus  causing  the  constant  accelerative  rate  of 
thirty-two  feet  per  second  of  a  falling  body  to  the  earth. 

In  thus  communicating  to  or  maintaining  a  vibra- 
tory movement  in  the  molecules  of  matter  the  ethereal 
particles  must  lose  a  portion  at  least  of  their  own 
motion,  so  that  the  said  atoms,  even  if  in  themselves 
perfectly  elastic,  would  retreat  from  the  mass  with 
less  swiftness  than  they  came  to  it ;  or  their  own 
motion  might  be  entirely  converted  into  the  new  mo- 
lecular motions  of  the  mass — into  heat  and  electro 
static  and  electro  motive  force,  in  which  events  the 
ethereal  atoms  would  come  to  rest ;  or,  at  least,  move 
with  the  new  molecular  motion  only.  The  probable 
farther  electric  action  of  the  Ions  has  been  already 
mentioned. 

If  two  large  bodies  existed  free  to  move,  otherwise 
isolated  in  the  Ether,  but  within  such  a  distance  of 
each  other  as  to  be  within  the  length  of  the  mean  path 
of  the  Ether  particles,  their  condition  would  be  some- 
what different.  Each  would  receive  as  before  the 
impact  of  the  Ether  atoms ;  but  as  there  would  be 
fewer,  or  possibly  no  atoms  rebounding,  or  coming 
'55 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

from  the  direction  between  the  centres  respectively  of 
the  two  bodies,  owing  to  the  conversion  in  each  of 
the  ethereal  into  molecular  action,  it  is  evident  that 
each  body  would  receive  more  impulses  from  all  other 
directions  than  from  that  towards  the  other  body. 
Consequently,  the  .masses  would  move  in  the  line  of 
least  resistance,  and  therefore  approach  each  other; 
in  other  words,  would  gravitate  towards  each  other, 
or,  if  each  were  already  moving,  would  revolve  around 
each  other,  as  the  Moon  and  Earth  do  around  their 
common  centre  of  gravity. 

It  has  been  proved  mathematicallythat  the  effect  of 
one  body  thus  shielding  another  by  the  interposition  of 
their  respective  masses,  and  the  absorption  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  ethereal  atoms  into  the  said  masses  in  pro- 
portion to  the  molecules  of  the  masses,  would  be  that 
the  pressure  forcing  them  together  would  be  directly 
as  the  mass,  and  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  dis- 
tance between  their  centres,  which  coincides  with  the 
Newtonian  law  of  gravitation.  When  three  bodies 
instead  of  two  are  in  a  straight  line,  as,  for  instance, 
when  the  Sun  and  Moon  are  on  the  same  side  of  the 
earth,  their  so-called  attraction  upon  the  earth  is  the 
sum  of  their  separate  action,  as  practically  shown  by 
the  increased  height  of  the  tides  then  formed — the  so- 
called  spring  tides.  The  movement  of  the  Ether  atoms 
would  be  absorbed  by  each  body  in  proportion  to  their 

156 


THE  ETHER  AND   GRAVITATION 

mass  and  the  square  of  their  distance,  leaving  fewer 
in  motion  between  their  centres. 

Objections  may  be  made  to  the  ethereal  cause  of 
gravitation,  such  as  the  possibility  of  excessive  heat 
being  evolved  by  the  stoppage  of  the  Ether  atoms, 
and  it  may  be  asked  what  would  be  the  ultimate  dis- 
posal of  the  atoms  ?  In  reply  it  may  be  said,  that 
there  is  the  manifestation  of  heat  in  the  earth  below 
its  surface,  beyond  the  reach  of  solar  heat  radiation, 
the  temperature  increasing  one  degree  F.  for  every 
increasing  depth  of  100  to  200  feet,  according  to  loca- 
tion ;  though  deep  sea  soundings  show  that  the  bottom 
water  at  a  depth  of  five  to  six  miles  has  only  the  tem- 
perature of  the  maximum  density,  about  38°  to  40° 
F.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  increase  of 
heat  should  be  from  that  of  the  absolute  zero 
( —  273°  C.  —  460°  F.),  not  from  our  atmospheric 
conditions. 

The  ultimate  disposal  of  the  atoms  and  of  their 
motion  would  be  in  causing,  beside  heat,  the  molecular 
motion  in  the  mass,  which  all  matter  possesses ;  also 
the  electric  phenomena  already  described  and  the 
electric  currents  that  give  rise  to  Magnetism.  The 
atoms  may  in  part  or  whole  continue  their  course  as 
Ether  atoms,  and  finally  emerge  from  the  ponderable 
body,  moving  as  an  Ether  atom,  but  at  a  lower  rate 
of  motion,  until  ultimately  brought  into  rapid  mo- 
157 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tion  again  by  contact  with  other  normally  swift- 
moving  atoms. 

In  the  study  of  the  mechanical  forces  a  relation  is 
established  between  gravitation  and  other  forms  of 
energy,  by  the  assumption  that  "  potential  force,"  or 
the  energy  of  position,  is  possessed  by  a  body  raised 
to  a  position  from  which  it  can  fall ;  that  the  body 
holds  potentially  the  energy  that  has  been  exerted 
upon  it  to  raise  it  against  gravitation,  and  which 
becomes  again  active  in  its  fall.  This  enables  the 
calculations  to  be  made  between  the  motion  of  a  fall- 
ing mass  and  the  heat  produced  by  its  fall,  or  the 
energy  required  to  restore  the  mass  to  its  former 
elevation.  But  under  the  Atomic  Ether  theory  it 
should  be  looked  upon  as  the  measure  of  the  energy 
expended  to  resist  the  impulsive  or  gravitic  action  of 
the  Ether  atoms.  "  Potential  force  "  serves  to  form 
a  "  working  theory,"  as  the  phlogiston  theory  served 
a  useful  purpose  in  its  time,  until  the  discovery  of 
oxygen  and  the  true  theory  of  combustion  displaced 
it.  Ever  since  then  men  have  wondered  that  so  simple 
an  explanation  remained  so  long  unknown. 

The  brilliant  experiments  of  Prof.  H.  Hertz,  of 
Karlsruhe,  "Ueber  Strahlen  elektrischen  Kraft 
(Sitzensberichte  der  K.  Preusseriischen  Akademie  der 
Wissenschaften,"  Dec.,  1888),  have  established  the 
identity  of  the  movements  of  the  electric  waves  with 

158 


THE  ETHER  AND   GRAVITATION 

those  of  light ;  or,  as  Hertz  modestly  stated :  "  It  seems 
to  me  that  the  above  described  experiments  must 
serve  to  a  great  degree  to  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the 
identity  of  light,  radiant  heat  and  electro-dynamical 
wave  movements."  They  also  prove  the  existence 
of  the  Ether  in  which  they  have  their  being,  what- 
ever may  be  its  constitution,  beyond  the  possibility 
of  farther  dispute.  The  radiant  Magneto-Electric 
waves  are  of  great  length  and  relatively  very  slow. 
They  are  the  source  of  the  waves  used  in  Wireless 
Telegraphy.  Many  have  thought  that  Gravitation 
depended  in  some  way  on  Electricity,  but  it  is  a 
phenomenon  of  the  Ether — still  unexplained. 

The  Law  of  Parsimony  in  Philosophy  should  lead  to 
the  acceptance  of  the  atomic  theory  of  the  Ether  as  the 
probable  cause  of  gravitation  ;  at  least,  until  a  better 
and  more  satisfactory  solution  of  the  problem  can  be 
suggested.  It  is,  moreover,  the  only  theory  that  is 
plausible,  or  even  possible,  so  far  as  known.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  was  long  after  New- 
ton's time  that  the  difficulties  in  his  theories  of  light 
and  of  the  laws  of  gravitation  were  reconciled ;  that 
the  erroneous  views  that  even  he  held  were  cor- 
rected and  the  truth  of  his  main  laws  established,  and 
it  may  so  prove  in  this  case.  Thus  the  determination 
of  the  problem,  "  What  is  Gravity  ? "  has  not  yet 
received  a  generally  accepted  answer.  That  it  is  the 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

result  of  molecular  movement  in  the  Ether  is  more 
than  probable — it  is  almost  a  certainty ;  but  as  New- 
ton delayed  the  acceptance  by  his  own  mind  of  the 
operation  of  the  laws  of  gravitation  until  the  actual 
diameter  of  the  earth  was  truly  ascertained,  corrected 
the  apparent  discrepancy  in  the  calculations  of  the 
moon's  orbit,  and  finally  established  the  truth  of  his 
theories,  so  must  the  "  Nature  of  Gravity  "  wait  for 
further  knowledge  before  it  can  be  finally  removed  from 
the  realm  of  occult  causes,  and  brought  within  the  com- 
prehension of  the  human  reason.  Until  this  is  done 
the  doctrine  of  the  correlation  of  forces  is  incom- 
plete, and  the  action  of  gravity  remains  as  an  unex- 
plained anomaly  in  our  philosophy. 

160 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CONSTITUTION  OF  MATTER — CHEMISTRY — THE  ELE- 
MENTS— PHLOGISTON  THEORY — OXYGEN  AND 
COMBUSTION. 

IN  the  short  sketch  given  of  the  history  of  Al- 
chemy it  was  noticed  that  this  pseudo-science,  vain 
in  its  purpose  and  futile  in  its  ends,  had  yet  en- 
riched the  world  with  many  discoveries  of  the  proper- 
ties of  matter  that  otherwise  would  long  have  re- 
mained unknown.  This  knowledge,  though,  was  a 
heterogeneous  mass  of  disconnected,  unsystematized 
facts,  imperfectly  understood,  and  filled  with  mis- 
takes and  errors.  The  idea  that  the  base  of  all  sub- 
stances was  one — the  formless  matter,  inert  and 
without  properties;  in  itself  ignoble  and  of  degrad- 
ing nature,  unworthy  of  study  or  examination — was 
universally  held.  It  still  exists,  often  unconsciously, 
in  the  minds  of  many  metaphysicians  and  theologians. 
The  word  "  Materialistic  "  is  still  a  term  of  oppro- 
brium. The  four  elements — earth,  water,  air  and  fire 
— were  thought  to  be  the  cause  of  the  "  accidents  of  the 
substance  to  which  its  respective  properties  were  at- 
ii  161 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tributed,  and  the  change  of  one  of  the  four  elements 
for  another  could  give  rise  to  quite  another  body. 

Robert  Boyle  (1627-1691)  was  the  first  to  deny 
that  the  composition  of  matter  was  dependent  either 
on  the  four  elements  above  named  or  upon  the  Sul- 
phur and  Mercury  of  Paracelsus,  and  to  suggest  that 
"all  substances  that  could  not  be  chemically  sepa- 
rated into  other  constituents  were  elements."  This 
definition  of  an  element  is  adhered  to  at  the  present 
day.  Boyle  maintained  that  Chemistry  should  be 
studied  not  only  for  its  uses  in  alchemy  or  in  phar- 
macy, but  for  its  own  sake,  as  a  branch  of  Natural 
Science.  He  should  be  considered  as  the  Father  of 
Chemistry  viewed  as  a  true  Science. 

The  next  great  forward  step  was  Stahl's  (1660- 
1734)  Phlogiston  theory,  which,  although  entirely 
erroneous,  and  ultimately  abandoned,  served  a  useful 
purpose  in  holding  together  for  the  time  facts  that 
were  otherwise  disconnected,  and  in  affording  a  work- 
ing hypothesis,  until  greater  progress  disclosed  its 
errors  and  submitted  the  true  theory  of  combustion 
in  pjace  of  the  erroneous  one. 

Stab  1's  theory  was,  that  combustion  was  caused  by 
the  combustible  substance  parting  with  its  Phlogiston, 
which  was  thought  to  be  a  constituent  of  such  bodies, 
the  phlogiston  escaping  in  the  shape  of  flame ;  in  the 
case  of  a  metallic  body  leaving  behind  either  a  calx, 

162 


THE  PHLOGISTON  THEORY 

an  acid,  an  earth  or  ash-like  substance,  which  was 
supposed  to  be  the  really  pure  substance.  When  the 
latter  was  united  with  phlogiston  it  formed  the  metal, 
the  sulphur,  or  other  combustible.  Sulphur,  for  in- 
stance, being  the  compound  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
phlogiston,  etc.  The  phlogiston,  when  escaping  into 
the  air,  was  absorbed  by  plants  and  animals,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  and  became  the  source  of  heat 
and  life  to  man.  It  was  soon  found  that  a  metal 
when  burned,  Mercury,  for  instance,  yielded  a  calx 
(an  oxide)  that  weighed  more  than  the  metal  and 
phlogiston  did  originally.  This  was  accounted  for 
by  attributing  negative  gravity,  or  a  principle  of 
lightness  or  levity,  to  the  phlogiston,  and  found  sup- 
port in  the  fact  that  the  flame  from  burning  matter 
ascended  in  the  air.  Absurd  as  this  theory  now  seems 
to  us,  it  commanded  general  assent  for  many  years, 
and  retained  its  adherents  even  after  the  discovery 
of  oxygen  and  the  true  phenomena  of  combustion. 

In  1755  Joseph  Black  (1728-1799),  of  Edinburgh, 
described  the  preparation  of  "  fixed  air,"  or  carbon 
dioxide.  Until  this  time  all  gases  were  looked  upon 
as  being  identical  with  air.  No  difference  in  nature 
or  properties  were  known  to  exist.  Black  showed 
that  the  gas  obtained  by  heating  Carbonate  of  Mag- 
nesia was  the  same  as  that  produced  in  combustion, 
in  breathing,  and  in  the  fermentation  of  beer,  and 

163 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

had  properties  entirely  different  from  those  of  atmos- 
pheric air,  being  what  was  known  heretofore  as 
"fixed  air." 

Joseph  Priestley  (1733-1804)  pursued  these  investi- 
gations into  the  nature  of  gases  and  into  the  composi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere.  He  found  that  when  charcoal 
was  burned  in  a  closed  vessel  containing  air,  and  the 
fixed  air  thus  produced  was  then  absorbed  by  lime 
water,  the  volume  of  the  air  was  diminished  by  one- 
fifth,  and  the  remaining  four-fifths  were  no  longer 
capable  of  supporting  combustion  or  respiration. 
This  remainder  he  considered  to  be  phlogisticated  air, 
since  it  had  no  longer  an  affinity  for  phlogiston.  In 
1774,  by  heating  the  red  oxide  of  Mercury  (the  "  Hy- 
dragyrum  precipitatum  per  se"  of  the  Alchemists), 
he  obtained  a  gas  which  he  thought  was  entirely  free 
from  phlogiston;  it  eminently  supported  combustion. 
He  considered  it  to  be  dephlogisticated  air.  This  was 
the  all-important  discovery  of  oxygen.  It  is  well 
worthy  of  notice  that  neither  Priestley,  Cavendish 
nor  Scheele,  each  of  whom  occupied  himself  with 
and  extended  his  investigations  into  the  properties 
of  oxygen,  ever  gave  up  the  phlogiston  doctrine,  or 
accepted  the  true  philosophy  of  combustion. 

This  shows  how  difficult  it  is  to  displace  erroneous 
views  from  the  minds  of  men,  who  have  found  therein 
a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  facts  as  they  were 

164 


THE   DISCOVERY  OF  OXYGEN 

then  known,  even  when  they  themselves  have  fur- 
nished the  new  facts  that  established  another  theory, 
irresistible  to  minds  that  were  free  from  the  bias  of 
earlier  convictions. 

Notwithstanding  the  known  existence  of  Oxygen, 
the  nature  of  combustion  remained  thus  misunderstood 
until  ANTOINE  LAURENT  LAVOISIER  (1743-1794) 
announced  his  theory  thereof.  In  1777  he  gave  to 
the  Academic  des  Sciences  his  memoire  on  "Some 
substances  that  are  constantly  in  the  state  of  aeriform 
fluids  at  the  normal  temperature  and  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere."  This  was  the  first  study  of  the  dis- 
tinctive nature  of  gases.  This  was  followed  in  the 
same  year  by  his  paper  on  "  The  constitutive  prin- 
ciple of  heat  known  as  Caloric."  In  the  above,  as 
well  as  in  the  number  of  later  contributions  to  the 
Academic,  he  expounded  his  theory  of  combustion, 
which  taught  that  "A  body  can  burn  only  in  air 
holding  oxygen  (pure  air)."  By  combustion,  light  and 
heat — which  were  thought  to  be  substances,  but  im- 
ponderable— became  free,  whereby  the  Oxygen  that 
had  been  previously  with  the  Caloric  was  consumed; 
the  air  thus  losing  in  weight  as  much  as  the  burning 
body  gained,  and,  that  the  latter,  by  its  union  with  oxy- 
gen, formed  an  acid,  or,  if  a  metal,  a  metallic  calx. 
He  also  recognized  the  role  that  oxygen  plays  in 
respiration,  whereby  the  blood  in  uniting  therewith 

165 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

is  in  part  consumed ;  the  constituents  of  which  must 
be  restored  later  by  the  nourishment  taken.  He 
agreed  with  Boyle  that  only  the  substances  capable 
of  demonstration,  and  that  could  not  be  further  sepa- 
rated into  their  own  constituents,  should  be  considered 
as  elementary.  To  Lavoisier  is  also  due,  in  common 
with  Guy  ton  de  Morveau,*  the  establishment  of  the 
new  chemical  nomenclature.  It  replaced  the  strange 
and  often  absurd  names  inherited  generally  from  the 
language  of  Alchemy,  by  a  clear,  simple  and  distinc- 
tive terminology,  that  usually  carried  its  definition  in 
its  name. 

In  1789  appeared  Lavoisier's  "Traite-Elementaire 
de  Chimie,"  in  which  the  new  views  of  the  science  were 
set  forth  in  the  most  admirable  and  convincing  manner. 
The  plates  explaining  the  apparatus  he  had  contrived 
for  his  experiments  were  drawn  and  engraved  by  his 
Wife,  who,  Cuvier  states,  "  had  understood  and  sec- 
onded him  in  his  labors,  and  whose  precious  qualities 
were  the  charm  of  his  life." 

Lavoisier  commenced  in  1793  to  gather  together 
his  memoirs,  which  were  scattered  through  the  records 
of  the  Academic  for  over  twenty  years,  and  to  arrange 
them  consecutively,  according  to  the  nature  of  his 
discoveries.  Four  of  the  volumes  were  each  partly 

*  1737-1816.    The  discoverer  of  the  destruction  of  Typhus  Fever, 
of  Jail  fever  germs,  by  sulphur  and  chlorine  fumigation. 

166 


LA  VOISIER 

printed,  when  he  was  arrested  as  one  of  the  "  Fermi- 
eres  Generaux,"  or  Revenue  Commissioners,  by  the 
revolutionary  tribunal,  and,  although  the  administra- 
tion of  his  duties  in  the  collection  of  the  national 
finances  had  not  only  been  without  blemish,  but  of 
singular  advantage  to  those  within  his  charge,  he  was 
guillotined  with  twenty-eight  other  "  Farmers  Gen- 
eral "  May  8,  1794.  He  asked  for  a  delay  of  several 
days,  in  order  that  he  might  complete  for  the  benefit 
of  humanity  the  arrangement  of  his  memoires,  but 
the  Chief  of  the  horrible  tribunal  savagely  replied : 
"We  have  no  use  for  Savants."  Lavoisier  was  only 
fifty-one  years  old.  What  discoveries  might  he  not 
have  made  had  he  lived  longer !  As  Lagrange  truly 
said :  "  It  only  required  one  moment  for  the  execu- 
tioner to  cut  off  such  a  head ;  but  centuries  may  roll 
by  before  another  like  it  is  produced." 

167 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  ATOMIC  THEORY  OF  MATTER — JOHN  DALTON'S 
LAW  OF  DEFINITE  PROPORTIONS — THE  INDE- 
STRUCTIBILITY OF  THE  ATOMS  —  MOLECULAR 
FORMATIONS  —  CRYSTALLIZATION. 

WE  have  had  occasion  several  times,  in  speaking 
of  the  views  held  of  the  physical  nature  of  matter 
both  by  the  ancient  writers  and  among  modern  ones, 
to  refer  to  the  atoms,  and  to  the  theories  in  which 
they  played  an  important  part.  In  all  of  the  above 
instances  they  were  supposed  to  be  of  one  and  the 
same  nature ;  the  use  made  of  them  required  them  to 
be  solid,  hard,  elastic  and  imperishable ;  but  nothing 
had  been  shown  that  required  these  atoms  of  matter 
to  be  essentially  different  one  from  the  other,  or  from 
the  negative  qualities  that  the  ideas  of  Democritus, 
Lucretius,  or  even  the  Aristotelian  conception  of  the 
Scholastics  had  formulated.  When  Boyle,  and  later 
when  Lavoisier,  had  recognized  the  existence  of  va- 
rious elements,  new  ideas  arose.  The  use  of  an 
accurate  balance  in  the  examination  of  substances 

168 


ATOMIC  THEORY  OF  MATTER 

showed  that  definite  relations  existed  between  the 
weights  of  the  constituent  elements. 

Charles  Frederic  Wenzel  (1740-1793)  found  that 
the  amount  of  basic  oxides  required  to  form  neutral 
salts  with  a  given  acid  was  proportional  to  the  weight 
of  the  oxides  required  to  saturate  one  and  the  same 
amount  of  another  acid.  These  results  he  published  in 
1777.  The  law  of  definite  and  multiple  combinations 
was  not,  however,  finally  and  indisputably  established 
until  the  publication  of  Dal  ton's  Atomic  Theory  of 
Chemistry  reduced  to  order  and  simplicity  the  pre- 
viously disconnected  and  unexplained  phenomena  of 
chemical  combination. 

John  Dal  ton  (1766-1844),  mathematician,  physi- 
cist and  chemist,  was  the  son  of  a  weaver  of  woolens, 
in  very  poor  circumstances,  at  Eaglesfield,  in  Cum- 
berlandshire,  England.  He  and  his  parents  belonged 
to  the  Society  of  Friends.  He  was  sent  to  a  school 
near  his  home,  kept  by  one  of  his  own  sect,  at  an 
early  age.  When  the  boy  was  less  than  twelve  years 
old  his  teacher  told  his  father  that  he  could  teach 
him  nothing  more,  and  urged  him  to  send  him  where 
his  rare  abilities  could  receive  the  benefits  of  a  Uni- 
versity culture.  This  his  father  could  not  do ;  he  was 
obliged  to  keep  him  at  home  to  assist  him  in  his  work. 
For  two  years  he  thus  remained,  and,  in  order  to  re- 
tain what  he  had  learned,  he  taught  in  the  winter 

169 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

evenings  at  a  school  composed  of  his  former  associates, 
all  older  than  himself,  as  much  as  he  had  been  able 
to  learn.  When  he  was  fifteen,  he  was  called  to  Ken- 
dal  by  a  cousin  who  had  a  school  there,  and  placed 
as  second  in  charge  thereof.  Here  he  acquired 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  authors  of  an- 
tiquity. In  Kendal  resided  a  Mr.  Gough,  a  man  of 
fortune  and  of  distinction,  who,  although  blind,  was 
devoted  to  scientific  study,  and  lived  surrounded  by 
his  books  and  philosophical  apparatus.  Under  his 
instruction,  and  by  assisting  in  his  experiments,  Dai- 
ton  acquired  that  taste  and  power  for  the  observation 
of  the  facts  of  natural  science  that  led  to  the  dis- 
coveries that  have  immortalized  him.  •  This  intimate 
connection  between  them  lasted  eight  years.  In  1793 
the  town  of  Manchester  founded  a  College,  and  ap- 
plied to  Mr.  Gough  for  a  Professor  for  the  Chair  of 
Mathematics,  and  Dal  ton  was  appointed  to  it. 
Among  his  first  contributions  to  science  was  a  paper 
upon  the  "  Vision  of  Colors,"  in  which  he  described 
an  aberration  of  sight,  color  blindness,  from  which  he 
suffered.  He  could  not  distinguish  between  red, 
purple  and  blue.  This  affection  of  sight  has  since 
been  known  as  "  Daltonism."  He  thought  this  con- 
dition was  due  to  the  color  of  the  fluids  in  his  eyes. 
By  his  direction,  his  eyes  were  examined  after  death, 
and  the  crystalline  lenses  were  found  to  be  slightly  yel- 
170 


JOHN  D  ALTON 

low;  but,  nevertheless,  on  trial,  objects  viewed 
through  the  same  appeared  to  preserve  their  natural 
color. 

Dal  ton  devoted  his  life  to  the  study  of  natural 
phenomena.  He  made  more  than  200,000  observa- 
tions on  the  conditions  of  the  atmosphere ;  he  deter- 
mined conditions  existing  between  rain  and  the  dew ; 
the  degree  of  heat  and  cold  produced  by  condensa- 
tion of  the  air,  and  many  other  meteorological  investi- 
gations. / 

In  1801  he  suggested  the  probability  that  all  gases 
could  be  reduced  to  the  liquid  state  under  suitable 
conditions  of  low  temperature  and  strong  pressure. 
The  last  few  years  has  proved  the  truth  of  his  sur- 
mise ;  all  the  gases  have  been  liquified  and  all  solidi- 
fied. In  1801  Dalton  published  his  "  New  System 
of  Chemical  Philosophy,"  in  which  he  showed  that 
the  elementary  substances  consisted  of  atoms,  peculiar 
to  each  element,  that  united  with  the  atoms  of  the 
other  elements  in  exact  and  definite  proportions;  that 
these  ratios  were  constant  and  absolute  for  each  sub- 
stance ;  the  elements  uniting  with  each  other  only  in 
these  proportions,  or,  in  some  instances,  in  a  simple 
multiple  thereof.  To  each  of  the  simple  elements,  or 
the  atoms  thereof,  he  assigned  a  certain  relative  weight, 
for  which  he  assumed  the  weight  of  an  atom  of  hy- 
drogen (that  element  having  the  lowest  combining 

171 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

number  known)  as  unity,  all  the  other  elements  being 
simple  multiples  thereof.  The  elements,  when  uniting 
with  each  other  and  forming  new  compounds,  did  so 
only  in  the  ratio  of  these  combining  numbers.  If  a 
greater  proportion  of  either  of  the  constituent  elements 
were  present  than  formed  these  ratios,  the  excess 
thereof  remained  unaffected  and  unchanged.  The 
number  of  these  elements  then  known  (1810)  were 
about  forty-five,  though  some  of  them  as  yet  existed 
only  as  oxides,  or  otherwise  in  combination.  This 
theory,  like  most  new  ones,  met  with  many  opponents, 
but  he  lived  to  see  its  general  acceptance.  Dal  ton 
never  married.  He  said  "  he  never  had  time  to  get 
married."  He  died  July  27,  1844. 

Modern  Science  has  grouped  the  atoms  of  Dalton 
into  two  classes  of  molecules.  One  formed  from  the 
union  of  two  or  more  atoms  of  the  same  elementary 
nature,  but  constituting  a  body  with  other  properties 
than  those  of  the  single  atoms — such  as  the  union  of 
three  oxygen  atoms  to  form  one  of.  ozone ;  the  other 
from  the  union  of  two  or  more  dissimilar  elementary 
atoms  into  like  groups.  Thus  the  two  atoms  of 
Hydrogen  and  one  of  Oxygen  form  one  molecule  of 
water.  Generally  speaking,  the  new  body  thus 
formed  possesses  no  analogy  to  the  properties  of  its 
constituents. 

The  labors  of  Berzelius,  Gay-Lussac,  Avogadro 
172 


LAW  OF  DEFINITE  RELATIONS 

and  Ampere  established  the  facts  that  the  number  of 
molecules  in  equal  volumes  of  all  gases  are  the  same. 
This  served  as  the  points  of  departure  for  the  dis- 
covery of  the  relation  between  the  gaseous  state  and 
volume  of  the  elements,  and  their  chemical  and  atomic 
relations,  that  in  the  last  forty  years  have  changed 
the  nomenclature  as  well  as  the  theories  of  chemical 
affinities.  The  various  systems  by  which  it  was  shown 
that  the  molecules  were  grouped — viz  :  the  Dualistic, 
the  theory  of  Radicals,  the  Substitution  theory  of 
Gerhardt  and  Laurent,  and  Gerhardt's  theory  of 
types — each  contributed  in  turn  to  the  advance  of 
science,  being  complemented  finally  in  the  theory  of 
the  Valences  of  the  elements.  By  this  it  is  shown 
how  chemical  combinations  are  formed;  new  mo- 
lecular groups  with  their  distinctive  properties  may 
be  predicated,  and  at  the  same  time  it  is  made  evident 
why  the  atoms  cannot  enter  into  every  desjred  com- 
bination, and  why  certain  grouping  of  molecules  must 
be  impossible. 

Of  the  cause,  or  rather  of  the  nature  of  chemical 
affinity,  we  have  no  conception.  We  know  that  cer- 
tain elements  or  molecules  have  the  quality  of  unit- 
ing with  certain  other  molecules  with  great  energy ; 
that  they  displace  other  molecules  to  do  so ;  but  what 
this  affinity  is,  we  know  not. 

The  combinations  of  atoms  into  molecules,  or  the 
173 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

affinities  of  chemical  attraction,  at  least  as  we  know 
them,  seem  to  exist  only  within  a  very  limited  range 
of  temperature.  At  low*  temperatures — such  as  that 
at  which  the  atmospheric  air  liquifies  (312  de- 
grees below  zero  F.) — chemical  action  almost  ceases. 
Even  Fluorine,  which  ordinarily  acts  so  energetically 
upon  all  other  substances  as  nearly  to  deserve  the 
name  of  the  Alkahest  or  universal  solvent — the  ma- 
terial sought  for  by  the  Alchemists  of  old — is  without 
action  upon  all  bodies,  excepting  Hydrogen  and  some 
of  its  organic  compounds.  Probably  even  this  ac- 
tion would  cease  with  still  greater  cold.  At  a  very 
high  temperature,  such  as  a  white  heat,  most  inorganic 
compounds  are  dissociated  into  their  component  atoms. 
To  effect  many  changes  of  affinities  it  is  necessary  to 
raise  the  respective  molecules  to  a  higher  temperature 
than  that  normally  existing,  when  the  increase  of  heat 
alters  the  pre-existing  affinities.  No  change  in 
chemical  composition  takes  place  without  a  simul- 
taneous evolution  or  absorption  of  heat,  a  mani- 
festation of  electrical  phenomena,  or  of  both  phe- 
nomena. 

When  the  change  in  the  combination  of  the  mo- 
lecules begins,  it  is  often  attended  with  so  great  a  de- 
velopment of  heat  as  to  raise  the  surrounding  mo- 
lecules to  great  activity,  and  to  propagate  the  action 
throughout  the  mass  of  the  molecules  in  contact. 


HEAT  AND  ATOMIC  AFFINITY 

This,  in  the  union  of  carbon,  hydrogen  or  the  com- 
pounds thereof  with  oxygen  or  atmospheric  air,  con- 
stitutes the  phenomenon  of  ordinary  combustion.  The 
respiration  of  animals  is  of  the  same  nature.  The 
carbon  and  hydrogen  constituents  of  the  blood  are 
brought  in  contact  in  the  lungs  with  oxygen  and  con- 
verted into  Carbon-Dioxide  and  water.  Heat  being 
evolved  to  the  same  extent,  but  not  with  the  same 
intensity  as  in  ordinary  combustion.  When  the  mo- 
lecules of  the  one  body  are  surrounded  by,  but  not 
mixed  with,  the  molecules  of  the  other,  the  chemical 
action  being  limited  to  the  surface  only  of  one  of  the 
bodies,  the  change  in  combination  is  gradual,  pro- 
ceeds slowly  and  without  violence.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, such  molecules  are  intimately  mixed  together, 
as  coal  gas  when  mixed  with  air,  or  if  oxygen  is  held 
in  such  a  combination  that  a  slight  rise  in  tempera- 
ture will  set  it  free,  as  it  is  in  the  saltpetre  contained 
in  gunpowder,  the  chemical  action  is  transmitted  al- 
most instantly  throughout  the  mass,  causing  a  violent 
and  destructive  explosion,  with  intense  heat  and 
consequent  expansion  of  the  gases  formed,  into  many 
hundred  times  the  bulk  of  the  pre-existent  masses. 

The  many  myriads  of  substances — solid,  liquid  or 
gaseous,  mineral  or  organic,  inanimate  or  having 
life — that  are  met  with  in  this  world,  and  we  have 
reason  to  believe  in  the  thousands  and  millions  of 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

other  worlds,  shown  to  us  by  the  stars  in  the  heavens 
around  us,  all  are  composed  of  the  grouping  together 
into  molecules  of  two  or  more  of  the  atoms  of  about, 
sixty-eight  different  elements.  Of  these,  fifty  are 
metals,  one-half  of  them  so  rarely  met  with  that 
even  most  professional  chemists  have  never  seen  them 
or  their  compounds.  In  the  inanimate  world  that 
we  are  familiar  with,  not  over  twenty-five  enter  into 
its  composition.  In  the  living  animal  or  vegetable 
world  still  fewer — only  about  fifteens-are  ever  present. 
It  is  very  seldom  that  even  one-half  of  this  number 
occur. 

In  regard  to  the  compounds  constituting  the  in- 
organic world  we  may  be  said  to  have  a  pretty  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  all  that  form  the  outer  crust 
thereof,  though  we  may  find  and  do  find  from  year  to 
year  some  rare  substance  that  we  cannot  prove  to  be 
composed  entirely  of  the  known  elements,  or  that 
contains  some  substance  with  new  properties  that  we 
cannot  separate  into  still  simpler  atoms.  This  dis- 
tinction of  properties  between  the  elementary  atoms 
of  one  body  and  those  of  another  is  absolute  and  in- 
variable. The  atoms  of  each  one  kind  are  absolutely 
the  same,  unchangeable  and  indestructible.  It  is 
impossible  tp  create  them  by  human  means,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  destroy  them.  Each  atom  may  group 
itself  with  others  like  itself  to  form  molecules  of 

176 


ATOMS  ARE   INDESTRUCTIBLE 

solid,  liquid  or  gaseous  bodies  (according  to  the  de- 
gree of  heat  present),  or  one  atom  may  form  with 
one  or  more  dissimilar  atoms,  other  molecular  bodies 
of  like  variable  physical  conditions  ;  but  in  all  com- 
binations whatever,  the  mass  of  the  new  body  or  bodies 
formed  are  the  exact  sum  of  the  simple  atoms  that 
pre-existed.  When  bodies  are  separated,  decomposed 
or  apparently  destroyed  by  fire  or  otherwise,  the 
atoms,  if  collected,  whether  singly  or  in  the  shape  of 
new  combinations,  will  exactly  equal  in  the  aggregate 
the  weight  of  those  that  constituted  the  former  and 
original  substances.  Matter  is  indestructible.  It 
cannot  be  created,  nor  can  it  be  destroyed. 

When  a  solid,  inorganic  substance  is  slowly  formed, 
either  from  the  slow  condensation  of  a  vapor  into  a 
solid ;  by  the  cooling  or  the  evaporation  of  a  solution 
of  a  solid ;  or,  finally,  by  the  cooling  of  a  mass  brought 
into  the  liquid  state  by  fusion,  it  is  usually  found  that 
the  solid  thus  produced  possesses  definite  form.  The 
sides,  or  plane  surfaces,  and  angles  uniting  them 
are  definite,  constant  and  peculiar  to  the  particular 
substance  in  question.  This  is  the  phenomenon  of 
crystallization.  In  a  few  instances  the  substance 
possesses  polymorphism ;  that  is,  it  crystallizes  in  two 
or  more  forms  not  belonging  to  the  same  system. 
This  seems  to  be  dependent  upon  varying  conditions 
of  temperature  in  its  formation,  or  on  the  presence 
12  177 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

of  foreign  salts.  On  the  other  hand,  instances  of 
isomorphism  are  not  rare  where  different  crystals, 
having  their  sides  and  angles  nearly  or  quite  equal 
one  with  another,  yet  differ  in  their  chemical  consti- 
tution. Generally,  however,  the  crystaline  formation 
is  a  true  index  to  the  chemical  composition.  The 
same  characteristics  apply  to  many  substances,  de- 
rivates  of  organic  structure.  The  deviation  pro- 
duced by  certain  crystals — Iceland  Spar,  Tourma- 
line, etc. — upon  a  ray  of  light  has  already  been 
noticed.  The  closest  relations  exist  between  the  main 
geometrical  axis  of  many  crystals,  the  optic  axis  of 
refraction  and  the  transmission  of  heat,  light  and  mag- 
netism. Whether  these  relations  depend  upon  the 
properties  of  the  Ether,  upon  the  chemical  affinities 
of  the  atoms  therein,  or  solely  upon  the  geometrical 
form  and  construction  of  the  crystal,  are  as  yet  un- 
solved problems. 

178 


CHAPTER  XV 

ACTION  OF  CHEMICAL  AFFINITY — GALVANIC  AC- 
TION —  MAGNETISM  —  ELECTRICITY  —  KATHODE 
AND  RONTGEN  RAYS — PERSISTENCE  OF  ENERGY 
— SOLAR  HEAT,  THE  SOURCE  OF  ALL  ENERGY — 
ORIGIN  OF  SOLAR  HEAT — ACTION  OF  THE  ETHER 
— DISSIPATION  OF  ENERGY — ENTROPY. 

THE  phenomena  of  chemical  affinities  may  mani- 
fest themselves  in  different  ways.  Apart  from  the 
effect  produced  upon  a  single  elementary  substance 
by  the  action  of  heat,  light,  or  electricity,  such  as  the 
fusion  of  a  metal,  the  development  of  magnetism  in 
iron  by  an  electric  current,  or  the  phosphorescence  of 
certain  substances  after  exposure  to  light — which  are 
rather  physical  than  chemical  phenomena — nearly 
all  chemical  changes  of  combination  are  caused  by 
variations  in  the  action  of  the  above-named  forces. 
These  alterations  in  affinities  may  be  : 

1st.  Simple  disruption  of  the  molecules,  as  when 
oxide  of  mercury  is  resolved  by  heat  into  mercury 
and  oxygen. 

2d.  The  simple  union  of  the  atoms  or  molecules  of 
i79 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

two  elements,  as  when  sulphur  and  iron  when  heated 
form  iron  sulphide. 

3d.  Decomposition  by  substitution.  When  to  a 
substance  composed  of  two  or  more  different  atoms 
or  molecules  the  molecules  of  a  third  substance  are 
brought,  whose  affinities  for  one  of  the  constituent 
molecules  of  the  first  substance  is  stronger  than  that  ex- 
isting between  the  molecules  already  in  combination, 
then  the  third  element  will  displace  one  of  the  former, 
setting  it  free.  Thus  zinc,  when  added  to  hydro- 
chloric acid  (a  compound  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen), 
will  unite  with  the  chlorine,  forming  Zinc  Chloride, 
displacing  the  hydrogen,  which  escapes  in  the  free 
state. 

4th.  Double  decomposition.  When  to  a  substance 
composed  of  the  union  of  two  different  molecules  is 
added  another  substance  whose  two  component  mo- 
lecules have  stronger  affinities  for  those  that  compose 
the  former  body,  there  will  be  formed  new  bodies 
from  the  mutual  interchange  of  the  molecules  respec- 
tively of  the  two  original  substances.  For  instance, 
when  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate  is  brought  into  con- 
tact with  a  solution  of  sodium  chloride,  the  result  is 
the  formation  of  sodium  nitrate  and  the  precipitation 
of  the  insoluble  Silver  Chloride. 

As  already  stated,  the  changes  of  chemical  affinity 
are  accompanied  or  caused  by  the  manifestation  of 


NATURE   OF  CHEMICAL  AFFINITY 

heat  and  electricity.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
the  action  described  under  (2)  and  (3).  In  a  similar 
manner  chemical  changes  are  dependent  usually  upon 
the  action  of  heat  and  electricity.  These  relations 
and  the  nature  of  chemical  affinity  may  be  to  some 
extent  explained  as  follows  : 

"  The  atoms  of  all  ponderable  matter  are  in  con- 
stant motion.  Upon  the  rapidity  and  extent  of  this 
motion  depend  its  physical  condition,  whether  it  is 
to  be  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous.  Every  force  which 
alters  the  vibrations  of  the  atom  must  also  change 
the  properties  of  the  matter,  since  these  properties 
depend  upon  the  movement  of  the  atoms.  Besides 
ponderable  matter,  there  exists  the  imponderable  ether, 
whose  atoms  are  in  continuous  motion  and  whose 
vibrations  produce  the  phenomena  of  heat,  light  and 
electricity.  These  vibrations  can  transplant  them- 
selves as  such  into  the  atoms  of  ponderable  matter, 
and  thereby  cause  a  change  in  the  nature  of  the  molec- 
ules, thus  producing  chemical  action.  For  instance, 
when  light  falls  upon  Silver  Chloride,  the  latter  be- 
comes black,  and  a  part  of  the  light  as  such,  disap- 
pears. This  is  because  the  rapid  vibrations  of  the 
Ether  are  transformed  into  slower  vibrations  which 
they  share  with  those  of  the  material  atom,  and  which 
manifests  itself  by  the  decomposition  of  the  Silver 
Chloride.  In  other  instances,  the  character  of  the  vibra- 

181 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tion,  whether  that  of  electricity  or  heat,  will  alter  the 
condition  of  the  vibrating  atomic  combination.  This 
action  may  express  itself  as  change  of  temperature, 
change  of  state  of  aggregation,  or  as  chemical  changes. 
The  phenomena  are  always  the  consequence  of  an  in- 
crease or  diminution  of  the  active  energy  of  the  pon- 
derable atoms,  which  corresponds  to  a  diminution  or 
to  an  increase  of  the  active  energy  of  the  ethereal 
motions.  Like  alterations  of  movement  occur  in  the 
chemical  processes  of  combination  and  of  double 
decomposition,  which  are  produced  by  the  force  of 
affinity;  that  is,  by  the  effort  of  heterogeneous  atoms 
to  carry  out  their  vibrations  in  accord  with  each  other. 
The  alterations  in  the  active  force  of  the  material 
atom  must  correspond  to  those  of  the  active  force  of 
the  ethereal  atoms.  Usually  this  alteration  manifests 
itself  as  the  development  or  absorbtion  of  heat.  Thus 
it  follows  that  a  chemical  reaction  is  analagous  in  its 
abstract  nature  to  a  change  in  the  physical  state  of 
aggregation  in  the  molecules  of  a  body."  * 

CHEMICAL  ACTION  is  effective  at  very  small  dis- 
tances only.  The  molecules  must  be  in  actual  con- 
tact, or  no  changes  of  affinities  are  manifested.  When 
a  plate  of  Zinc  is  placed  in  a  dilute  solution  of  Sul- 
phuric or  other  mineral  acid,  a  lively  effervescence 
occurs.  The  Zinc  dissolves  in  the  acid,  the  solution 

*Pierer'sKon.    Lex.    B.  3.    S.  930. 
18* 


GALVANIC  ACTION 

grows  warm,  and  Hydrogen  gas  is  freely  evolved  from 
the  Zinc  surface,  causing  the  effervescence.  If  the 
Zinc  plate  be  connected  by  wire,  in  or  outside  of  the 
liquid,  to  a  Copper  plate  immersed  in  the  same  solu- 
tion, but  the  plates  not  in  contact,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  gas  will  no  longer  be  evolved  from  the  Zinc  plate, 
but  will  be  from  the  Copper  one.  The  Zinc  plate 
nevertheless,  will  dissolve  more  rapidly ;  the  Copper 
plate  will  suffer  no  loss  or  change;  but  will  be  found 
charged  with  positive  electricity.  If  the  wire  be  cut 
in  the  middle  and  the  ends  kept  apart,  the  prior  exist- 
ing conditions  will  return.  On  bringing  again  the 
freshly  cut  ends  together,  when  nearly  in  contact  a 
spark  may  be  seen  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other.  The 
condition  will  be  again  reversed,  and  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Electric  current  are  manifested.  This 
constitutes  the  simplest  form  of  the  voltaic  battery. 
By  examination  it  is  found  that  for  every  molecule  of 
Zinc  dissolved  a  constant  quantity  of  Electricity  is 
produced,  which  in  its  turn  can  be  converted  into 
equally  constant  degrees  or  quantities  of  heat,  of  light, 
of  mechanical  motion,  or  be  made  use  of  to  effect  the 
decomposition  of  metallic  salts  in  solution  that  will 
be  alike  constant  in  the  amount  thus  decomposed.  If 
the  process  be  reversed  and  a  current  of  electricity, 
however  produced,  be  transmitted  to  metal  lie  plates  or 
objects  connected  as  described,  and  immersed  in  a  solu- 
•83 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tion  of  metallic  salts,  copper  or  silver  salts  for  instance, 
the  salt  will  be  decomposed  and  the  metal  deposited 
upon  the  surface  of  the  object  attached  to  the  Kathode 
or  negative  pole,  plate,  or  wire  corresponding  to  the 
Zinc  elements  of  the  battery — a  copper  plate,  if  a 
copper  or  silver  salt  be  used,  constituting  the  anode, 
the  opposite  or  positive  pole.  Thus  also  the  chemical 
action  between  the  metal  and  acid  may  be  used  for 
producing  light  or  heat  by  the  electric  current,  or  it 
may  be  used  for  causing  magnetic  attraction  between 
the  poles  of  the  electro-magnet  and  its  armature  in 
a  Dynamo,  thus  giving  rise  to  mechanical  motion. 
Mechanical  motion  again  in  its  turn,  when  applied  to 
a  dynamo,  generates  magneto-electric  currents  that 
will  produce  chemical  combinations  or  decompositions, 
heat,  light,  and  all  the  other  phenomena  above-named. 
The  phenomena  of  Magnetism — undoubtedly  one 
of  the  forms  of  Electricity  and  of  the  ethereal  medium 
— are  yet  very  imperfectly  understood.  The  natural 
Magnet,  the  Lodestone,  early  attracted  attention. 
Plato  thus  speaks  of  it :  "A  divine  power,  which 
moves  you,  like  that  in  the  stone  which  Euripides 
calls  the  Magnesian,  but  the  common  people  Hera- 
clean.  For  this  stone  not  only  attracts  iron  rings, 
but  it  imparts  a  power  to  the  rings,  so  that  they  are 
able  to  do  the  very  same  things  that  the  stone  does,  and 
to  attract  other  rings  and  sometimes  a  very  long  series 

184 


NLTURAL   MAGNETS 

of  iron  rings  hung  one  from  another ;  but  from  that 
stone  depends  the  power  in  all  of  them."  (Plato's 
Ion.,  Sec.  5.) 

The  stone  thus  described  is  essentially  one  form  of 
the  Black  Oxide  of  Iron  (Fe.  O.  Fe2.O3),  the  magnetic 
iron  ore  of  the  Iron  Masters.  It  was  early  known 
that  the  Lodestone  could  confer  properties  like  its 
own  upon  rods  or  strips  of  steel  by  being  drawn 
thereover  frequently  in  one  direction.  After  which 
the  rods  would  show  polarity.  If  hung  horizontally 
so  as  to  turn  readily,  the  same  end  would  always 
point  towards  the  North.  The  Chinese  noticed  the 
phenomenon,  and  used  the  Magnet  in  navigation  many 
centuries  before  the  Europeans  invented  the  Mariner's 
Compass.  The  property  of  polarization  referred  to 
above  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  globe  of  the  earth  is 
influenced  by  thermo-electric  currents,  induced  by  its 
diurnal  revolution  and  consequent  variation  of  temper- 
ature, and  also  by  other  causes.  These  currents  flow  in 
lines  parallel  to  the  Equator.  A  magnet  when  within 
an  electric  field  will  always  place  itself,  if  at  liberty 
to  move,  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  flow 
of  the  current,  thus  causing  the  positive  pole  of  the 
magnet  to  point  towards  the  North  in  a  natural  ter- 
restrial magnetic  field.  An  electric  field  or  current 
such  as  described  surrounds  a  magnet,  and  will  convert 
another  piece  or  rod  of  iron  into  a  magnet  if  placed 

185- 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

in  proper  contact  therewith.  If  the  iron  is  soft — that 
is,  pure — the  magnetism  will  continue  in  it  only  so 
long  as  they  are  in  electric  contact ;  but  if  the  iron 
is  hard — that  is,  if  it,  like  hardened  steel,  contains  a 
small  amount  of  chemically  combined  Carbon,  and  the 
contact  be  maintained  for  some  time — the  steel-like 
iron,  will  acquire  permanent  magnetism  equal  to  the 
original  magnet,  though  the  latter  will  lose  none  of 
its  own. 

If  an  electric  current  from  any  source  is  caused  to 
pass  through  an  insulating-covered  wire  (a  conductor), 
making  many  spiral  coils  around  a  rod  or  other  mass 
of  iron,  the  iron,  if  soft  and  pure,  will  become  a 
strong  magnet,  but  will  lose  its  magnetism  instantly  on 
interruption  of  the  electric  flow.  On  this  property  de- 
pends to  a  great  extent  the  application  of  electricity  to 
the  dynamo,  the  telegraph  and  most  of  its  other  uses. 
If  steel  or  hard  iron  is  used  in  place  of  soft  iron,  it 
will  acquire  permanent  magnetism.  It  is  thus  that 
magnets  now  are  practically  made.  How  or  why  the 
Black  oxide  of  iron  and  why  hard  iron  should  pos- 
sess this  strange  power  of  retaining  magnetism  per- 
manently, themselves  undergoing  no  chemical  or 
physical  change,  is  inexplicable.  Within  the  last 
twenty  years  the  application  of  Electricity  and  of 
electro-magnetism  to  new  and  important  uses  have 
been  so  numerous  as  nearly  to  revolutionize  the  pro- 

186 


ELECTR  O-MA  GNE  TISM 

cedures  of  our  daily  life.  They  far  surpass  any  cor- 
responding advance  in  our  theories  or  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  Electricity  itself.  Very  little  has  been 
discovered  therein  beyond  Hertz's  corroboration  of 
Maxwell's  ideas  as  to  the  non-instantaneous  transfer- 
ence of  electric  and  magnetic  forces,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  the  identity  of  the  phenomena  of  radiant  light 
and  electricity  ;  the  waves  of  the  latter,  or  the  electric 
vibrations  of  the  Ether  that  transmit  them,  substan- 
tially agreeing  in  rapidity  of  transference  through 
space,  in  reflection  by  a  suitable  mirror,  in  being  dis- 
persed by  a  prism  and  in  becoming  polarized,  with 
the  similar  phenomena  of  light  waves ;  differing  only 
in  the  much  greater  length  and  slower  movements  of 
the  waves  of  electricity. 

The  importance  of  the  practical  adaption  of  electro- 
magnetism  to  the  dynamic  motor  ;  its  use  in  the  tele- 
graph and  the  telephone,  are  well  known,  but  the 
details  thereof  are  not  within  the  scope  of  this  writ- 
ing. The  late  and  interesting  discovery  of  the  strange 
properties  of  the  so-called  X-rays,  or  the  Rb'ntgen  rays, 
and  of  the  closely  related  Kathode  rays  require  that 
they  should  be  noticed. 

The  generating  vessel  of  the  Kathode  rays  and  of 
the  Rontgen  or  X-rays  consists  of  a  glass  tube  or 
bulb — the  so-called  Crooks'  tube — into  each  of  the 
opposite  ends  of  which  a  platinum  wire  is  inserted  by 

187 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

the  fusion  of  the  glass.  Means  are  provided  whereby 
the  air  or  other  gas  contained  therein  can  be  ex- 
hausted to  any  desired  extent ;  if  absolutely  exhausted, 
no  electric  current  will  pass.  When  the  above-named 
wires  are  connected  with  the  terminals  of  a  Ruhm- 
korf  's  or  induction  coil,  whereby  the  rapid  alternating 
currents  of  magneto-electricity  are  produced,  electric 
sparks  will  pass  through  the  partially  exhausted  tube 
so  frequently  as  to  appear  like  a  constant  stream. 
The  wire  by  which  the  current  enters — the  Anode — 
bears  on  its  inner  end  a  small  concave  Platinum  disk. 
The  opposite  wire — the  Kathode — bears  either  a 
similar  disk  or,  if  producing  the  Rontgen  rays  (the 
X-rays),  a  small,  flat  plate,  inclined  at  about  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees  toward  one  side  of  the  tube.  When 
the  aerial  contents  of  the  tube  are  so  far  exhausted 
that  only  about  one-millionth  thereof  remains,  and 
the  alternating  secondary  electric  current  is  passed, 
the  rosy  light  that  first  appears  between  the  elec- 
trodes gradually  retreats  towards  the  Anode  and  finally 
disappears,  whilst  from  the  Kathode,  the  negative 
pole,  a  pale,  bluish  light  spreads  in  increasing  volume, 
and  finally,  though  but  faintly  visible,  fills  the  whole 
tube.  These  Kathode  rays  pass  in  straight  lines  per- 
pendicularly from  the  surface  of  the  Kathode  plate 
without  regard  to  the  relative  position  of  the  two 
poles.  They  can  be  deflected  by  a  magnet — bent  out 

188 


KATHODE  AND  RONTGEN  RAYS 

of  their  course.  When  the  Kathode  rays  fall  upon 
the  glass  walls  of  the  tube  they  excite  the  glass  to  a 
vivid,  yellowish-green  glow,  but  do  not  seem  to  escape 
from  the  tube. 

In  1895  Rontgen  found  that  when  he  brought 
fluorescent  substances,  though  enclosed  in  thick  paste- 
board cases,  near  the  tube  they  would  glow  with  a 
phosphorent  light,  though  no  light  from  the  tube 
itself  was  apparent.  These  invisible  rays  seemed  to 
radiate  from  a  certain  part  of  the  yellowish-green 
lighted  surface.  They  were  not  Kathode  rays,  for 
they  had  not  the  characteristic  property  of  being  at- 
tracted by  the  Magnet.  For  these  new  rays,  that 
Rontgen  provisionally  called  X-rays  (unknown  rays), 
all  bodies  are  more  or  less  transparent.  They  will 
pass  through  a  thick  book  of  1000  pages,  through  thick 
blocks  of  wood,  and  even  through  metallic  plates,  if 
not  too  thick.  The  permeability  of  plates  seems  some- 
what dependent  inversely  upon  their  specific  gravity. 
A  plate  of  lead  ^  inches  thick  is  nearly  impenetrable, 
while  one  of  aluminum  ten  times  as  thick  is  penetrated. 
The  X-rays  are  neither  reflected  nor  refracted.  The 
Rontgen  rays,  invisible  themselves,  cast  the  shadows 
of  difficultly,  penetrable  bodies  permanently  upon  the 
photographic  plate,  or,  if  falling  upon  a  fluorescent 
substance,  produce  visible  shadows  thereon  of  the 
dense  body  that  cut  off  their  rays,  the  said  rays  pass- 

189 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

ing  almost  unhindered  through  the  thick  soft  tissues 
that  lie  between.  In  either  case  they  render  infor- 
mation and  help  to  the  Surgeon  from  unexpected 
and  unknown  sources  that  would  have  seemed  like 
the  fairy  tale  of  a  magician's  power,  if  told  of  or  pre- 
dicted a  few  years  ago. 

The  properties  of  the  Rontgen  rays  are  involved  in 
those  of  the  Kathode  rays,  for  before  escaping  through 
the  glass  tube  they  were  part  thereof.  The  rays 
emitted  from  the  Kathode  consist  of  a  mixture  of 
varied  nature.  The  larger  part,  those  which  become 
visible  by  impinging  on  the  side  of  the  tube,  are 
stopped  in  their  course  by  the  walls  thereof,  which  they 
heat  by  their  impact ;  they  are  deflected  by  a  magnet. 
They  are  emitted  at  right  angles,  perpendicularly  to 
the  surface  of  the  Kathode  plate.  If  it  is  deeply  con- 
cave, they  can  be  brought  to  a  focus  therein,  where 
they  will  develop  intense  heat,  and  will  even  fuse 
Iridium,  the  most  intractable  of  metals.  They  are 
not  permeable  to  glass,  but  will  pass  through  a  thin 
plate  of  aluminum  if  forming  a  part  of  the  tube  wall; 
will  escape  into  the  air  and  there  show  a  diffused  light. 
They  are  thought  to  carry  material  corpuscles  nega- 
tively electrified.  They  appear  to  be  of  the  identi- 
cally same  character  irrespective  of  the  nature  of 
the  gas  in  the  tube  from  which  they  originally  came, 

J.  J.  Thompson  and  other  investigators  suggest 
190 


KATHODE  AND  RONTGEN  RAYS 

that  they  may  be  atoms  of  primordial  stuff,  or  par- 
ticles broken  off  from  physical  atoms.  He  estimates 
them  to  be  excessively  small — about  3/10-26  of  a 
gramme  in  mass  (about  three  quadrillions,  or  3-one 
million  million  million  millionths  of  a  gramme) — 
or  about  the  one  thousandth  part  of  the  size  of  an 
atom  of  Hydrogen.  They  have  a  translatory  velocity 
of  40,000  kilometers  a  second  (about  25,000  miles 
a  second),  rather  less  than  one-seventh  that  of  light.* 
Their  character,  size  and  velocities  approximate  those 
required  for  the  molecules,  or  the  Ions,  in  the  theory 
of  the  Atomic  structure  of  the  Ether.  It  is,  more- 
over, opposed  to  all  the  known  facts  and  established 
theories  of  Chemistry,  to  admit  the  possibility  of  Atoms 
being  broken.  The  Ether  is  undoubtedly  connected 
with  its  phenomena,  but  it  is  not  generally  accepted 
as  an  explanation  thereof,  though  maintained  by  some 
— preference  being  generally  given  to  the  view  above 
stated,  i.  e.,  that  they  are  negatively  electrified  cor- 
puscles of  material  atoms.  Of  the  rays  that  have  pas- 
sed through  the  sides  of  the  glass  tubes  (the  Rontgen 
rays),  thus  separated  from  the  other  components  of 
the  Kathode  rays,  even  less  is  known  as  to  their 
actual  nature.  The  important  service  that  they  have 
rendered  mankind  is  far  in  advance  of  any  plausible 
theory  of  their  nature. 

*  Estimated  now  (1902)  to  be  about  half  that  of  Light. 
191 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

The  extraordinary  properties  possessed  by  the  na- 
tive ores  of  Uranium,  its  salts,  and  possibly  some  new 
elements  that  are  associated  therewith,  offer  pheno- 
mena that  are  unexplainable.  They  emit  spontaneously 
and  continuously  phosphorescent  rays  in  many  ways 
similar  to  the  Kathode  rays.  They  blacken  the  sen- 
sitized photographic  plate ;  possess  the  power  of  fluor- 
escence and  of  penetrating  through  solid  matter, 
though  in  a  less  degree  than  that  of  the  Rontgen 
rays.  No  discoverable  chemical  change  in  their  com- 
position and  no  apparent  loss  of  weight  has  been  de- 
tected. The  are  in  every  way  an  anomaly.  It  may 
be  that  Uranium,  and  possibly  some  element  asso- 
ciated therewith  in  its  native  ores,  possess  as  extra- 
ordinary relations  to  radiant  light,  apart  from  all 
changes  in  chemical  constitution,  as  metallic  iron  does 
in  respect  to  electricity.  Though  long  acquaintance 
has  made  us  familiar  with  the  phenomena  of  per- 
manent magnetism  in  a  Horseshoe  or  other  Magnet, 
yet  the  cause  thereof  is  unexplainable. 

As  science  has  established  the  doctrine  of  the  inde- 
structibility of  matter,  so  it  has  demonstrated  the  in- 
destructibility of  energy.  No  human  power  can  create 
it,  nor  can  human  means  destroy  it.  The  permanence 
of  energy  and  the  correlation  of  forces  have  ceased  to 
be  theories.  They  are  now  the  axioms  upon  which  our 
philosophy  is  built,  and  the  foundation  upon  which 

192 


PERMANENCE   OF  ENERGY 

knowledge  and  science  rest.  By  their  help  only  can 
the  Path  of  Evolution  ever  be  more  fully  known. 
These  results  have  been  obtained,  not  through 
deductive  reasoning  from  a-priori  ideas  or  assumed 
premises,  but  by  careful  observation  and  repeated 
experiment.  They  have  shown  that  when  any 
form  of  energy,  such  as  the  motion  of  translation 
of  a  mass  of  molecular  matter,  or  when  that  motion 
which  constitutes  heat,  light,  electricity  or  chemical 
action  disappears,  it  is  not  lost,  but  reappears  in  one 
or  more  other  forms,  bearing  an  exact  and  definite 
ratio  to  the  quantity  of  the  force  expended.  Thus, 
when  a  mass  of  772  pounds  falls  to  the  earth  from 
the  height  of  one  foot,  its  arrest  evolves  as  much  heat 
as  would  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water 
one  degree  F. ;  conversely,  one  pound  of  water  in 
falling  one  degree  in  temperature  will  give  off  heat 
enough  to  raise  772  pounds  one  foot  high.  This 
relation  of  heat,  height  and  weight  is  used  as  the  con- 
stant under  the  name  of  "  foot-pounds  "  with  which 
to  measure  not  only  heat,  weight  and  motion,  but 
also  as  the  standard  with  which  to  compare  all  other 
changes  of  energy. 

It  has  been  shown  that  all  energy,  or  the  mani- 
festation of  all  physical  force  on  the  globe  is  derived 
directly  or  indirectly  from  the  radiation  of  heat  and 
of  light   from   the   sun.     All  physical  motion,    for 
13  '93 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

instance,  the  force  of  falling  water  is  due  to  the 
evaporation  by  solar  heat  of  water  from  the  ocean 
and  its  precipitation  again  as  rain  upon  elevated 
ground,  whence  it  flows  or  falls  to  a  lower  level ;  the 
action  of  the  wind  is  caused  by  the  ascension  of  heated 
air ;  the  power  of  steam  is  obtained  by  the  combus- 
tion of  coal  or  wood,  the  carbon  of  which  in  early  or 
in  later  times  was  stored  up  by  the  living  leaves  of 
trees,  that  solely,  under  the  influence  of  the  sunlight, 
absorbed  and  decomposed  the  Carbon  Dioxide  of  the 
atmosphere ;  the  muscular  force  of  animal  strength, 
that  obtained  its  energy  likewise  through  the  vegeta- 
tive growth,  under  the  sun's  light,  that  gave  the 
animal  its  food.  Chemical  action  itself  is  dependent 
upon  a  certain  degree  of  warmth,  below  which  all 
change  of  affinity  ceases.  Even  life  in  all  its  forms 
is  only  possible  when  the  light  of  day  and  the  heat 
thereof  provides  those  conditions  that  are  essential  to 
the  organic  growth. 

All  the  phenomena  that  nature  presents  are  thus 
the  manifestations  of  one  power ',  brought  to  the  earth 
by  the  Ether ;  it  is  uncreatable  by  man  and  by  him 
indestructible.  Protean  in  its  form,  in  its  essence  it 
is  inscrutable  and  unknown.  Including  within  itself, 
as  it  must  do,  the  mysterious  energy  of  Gravitation, 
of  which  we  know  the  laws  of  its  action,  but  not  yet 
surely  its  cause,  it  binds  the  inorganic  Universe  into 

194 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  SOLAR  HEAT 

one  whole,  one  macrocosm,  revealing  to  our  sense  of 
sight  on  the  one  hand,  the  intimate  structure  of  all 
organic  bodies  by  means  of  the  microscope,  though 
not  the  atoms  or  even  the  molecules  of  ultimate  mat- 
ter ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  teaches  us  that  there 
are  innumerable  worlds  governed  apparently  by  the 
same  physical  laws  as  our  own  world,  but  almost  in- 
finitely distant.  As  Proctor  has  said  of  the  stars : 
"  Beyond  the  limits  of  the  highest  power  of  the  tele- 
scope lie  thousands  of  millions  more." 

The  vibrations  of  the  material  atoms  of  the  sun 
transmit  to  us  through  the  vibrations  of  the  ether 
the  energy  of  light,  of  heat,  and  of  elecricity ;  but 
what  causes  the  vibrations  of  the  atoms  composing 
the  sun's  matter?  The  photosphere  is  evidently 
intensely  hot;  but  whence  arises  the  heat?  Com- 
bustion, or  the  results  of  chemical  action,  has  been 
shown  by  calculation  to  be  utterly  inadequate  to  pro- 
duce and  maintain  its  emission  of  heat.  "  If  the 
whole  mass  of  the  sun  was  composed  of  coal,  it  would 
all  be  consumed  in  6000  years."  (Barker.) 

The  conversion  of  the  motion  of  aerolites  into 
heat  by  their  fall  into  and  impact  upon  the  sun  prob- 
ably contributes  a  small  but  an  insignificant  and  in- 
adequate portion.  The  generally  accepted  theory  is, 
that  the  solar  heat  is  due  to  the  condensation  of  the 
originally  diffused  nebulous  matter  of  the  sun's 

'95 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

mass  upon  itself,  under  the  influence  of  gravitation. 
Be  the  cause  of  gravitation  what  it  may — the  impact 
of  the  ethereal  atoms  upon  the  molecules  of  matter 
or  some  other  unknown  force — the  heated  gases  and 
metallic  vapors  now  constituting  the  atmosphere  and 
outer  portions  of  the  sun,  must  be  driven  back  towards 
the  centre  of  the  sun  as  the  molecules  of  our  atmo- 
sphere are  driven  back  by  the  same  or  other  cause  of 
gravitation,  and  prevented  from  passing  out  and  being 
lost  in  space.  The  heat  of  the  sun  caused  by  and  per- 
sisting since  the  condensation  of  the  original  nebulous 
or  disseminated  state  is  augmented  by  the  continued 
condensation  of  the  molecular  mass,  and  returns  to  the 
ether  in  the  shape  of  the  molar  vibratory  motions  of 
heat,  light  and  electricity  in  the  Ether  as  an  isotropic 
medium,  that  energy  which  its  individual  atoms  before 
exhibited  in  their  inherent  atomic  motion,  and  ex- 
pended in  the  condensation  of  the  sun's  molecules  by 
the  arrest  of  their  own  movement. 

There  are  evident  reasons  why  gravitation  or  the  ar- 
rest of  the  motion  of  the  Ether  atoms  should  here  man- 
ifest itself  principally  as  heat.  The  sun  is  the  central 
body  of  the  Solar  System,  by  far  exceeding  the  com- 
bined mass  of  all  its  planets  ;  it  has,  so  far  as  known, 
no  other  motion  than  around  the  common  centre  of 
gravity  of  itself  and  the  planets,  with  the  rotative 
motion  on  its  own  axis,  which  motion,  as  well  as  any 

196 


THE   ORIGIN  OF  SOLAR  HEAT 

translatory  motion  in  a  straight  line  that  it  may  have, 
would,  according  to  the  laws  of  Inertia,  require  no 
expenditure  of  energy  or  maintaining  force.  The 
planets  and  their  satellites,  on  the  contrary,  are  con- 
tinually deflected  from  their  normal  right  line  motion 
by  the  force  of 'gravitation,  or  the  impact  of  the 
ethereal  atoms,  which,  in  the  instance  of  this  earth, 
is  a  force  sufficient  to  deflect  the  mass  of  the  earth 
from  a  straight  line  into  the  curve  of  its  orbit.  The 
equivalent  amount  of  energy  expended  on  the  sun, 
though  divided  proportionally  between  the  planets 
and  the  sun  in  the  ratio  of  their  respective  masses, 
would  manifest  itself  in  the  sun  as  heat  only,  since  the 
common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  sun  and  the  planets 
is  within  the  body  of  the  sun  itself;  the  latter 
having,  so  far  as  known,  no  orbital  motion.  It  is 
certain  that  a  large  part  of  the  Sun — the  photosphere 
— is  in  a  highly  heated  gaseous  state,  which  the  rain 
of  atoms  constantly  falling  on,  or  other  cause  of 
gravitation,  must  tend  to  drive  in  towards  the  sun's 
centre.  This  condensation  of  ponderable  matter  upon 
itself  must  increase  the  temperature  still  higher,  pro- 
ducing or  maintaining  thereby  that  dissociation  of  the 
elementary  atoms  that  manifests  itself  by  their  incan- 
descent light,  as  well  as  by  the  dark  Frauenhofer 
lines  in  the  solar  spectrum.  The  Ether  finally 
receives  back  from  the  glowing  sun  upon  its  isotro- 

197 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

pic  mass  of  temporarily  arrested  and  comparatively 
quiescent  atoms  the  surplus  energy  given  off  by  the 
sun,  in  the  form  of  the  short  and  intensely  rapid 
transverse  vibrations  of  radiant  light  and  heat  that 
pass  through  infinite  space  in  all  directions,  a  few  of 
which  reach  our  earth  with  the  speed  of  186,000 
miles  a  second,  and  bring  to  us  Light,  Heat  and  Life. 
Each  far  off  star  that  we  see  at  night,  the  nearest 
one  300,000  times  more  distant  than  our  Sun,  repeats 
this  wonderful  action  under  the  like  impulses  of  the 
Cosmic  Ether,  bringing  without  doubt  to  its  planets 
— ever  invisible  to  us — the  like  gifts  of  light  and 
life. 

An  objection  made  to  the  Atomic  theory  of  gravi- 
tation is  that  "  if  one  body  (the  earth,  for  instance) 
shields  another  body  (the  moon,  or  a  falling  stone) 
from  the  impact  of  the  atoms  between  them,  resulting 
in  the  movement  of  both  masses  in  the  line  of  least 
resistance,  this  shielding  of  impacts  would  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  half  diameter  of  the  respective  bodies ; 
which  proportion  is  incorrect,  as  gravitation  is  as  the 
mass,  or  weight,  not  as  the  area."  The  protection  of 
one  body  by  the  other  would  not  be  as  the  area,  but 
as  the  mass.  It  is  true  that  the  respective  bodies 
would  shield  one  another  in  proportion  to  their  half 
diameters,  but  the  effect  thereof  would  be  in  propor- 
tion to  their  mass.  The  Ether  penetrates  the  inter- 

198 


PLANETARY  GRAVITATION 

stices  of  all  bodies,  however  great,  and  must,  therefore, 
in  part  only,  pass  through  them,  doubtlessly  in  some 
definite  though  unknown  ratio.  The  Ethereal  molec- 
ules would  lose  their  motion  in  direct  proportion  to 
the  number  and  nature  of  the  molecules  in  the  mass 
that  absorbed  their  motion,  being  changed  partly  into 
molecular  motion  of  the  respective  molecules,  which 
are  known  to  be  in  an  actual  state  of  vibratory  mo- 
tion, and  partly  are  changed  into  the  translatory  mo- 
tion of  the  mass  of  the  planets ;  which  motions,  from 
being  naturally  tangents  to  their  orbits,  are  forced  at 
right  angles  thereto  into  the  curves  of  their  ellipses. 
The  impulsive  action  of  the  ethereal  atoms  would 
therefore  diminish  in  the  ratio  that  the  respective 
masses  of  ponderable  molecules  absorbed  their  motion 
— not  be  kept  off  as  rain-drops  would  be  by  an  um- 
brella. 

The  difficulty  of  accounting  for  the  origin  and 
maintenance  of  the  inherent  motion  of  the  atoms  of 
the  Ether  in  their  free  path  is  as  great  as  in  account- 
ing for  the  vibratory  motion  of  the  atoms  of  solid, 
liquid  or  gaseous  matter,  but  not  greater.  It  is  the 
question  concerning  the  First  Cause  !  To  this  quest- 
ion human  intelligence  can  give  no  definite  answer. 
It  should  be  remembered,  though,  that  it  is  more 
philosophical  to  assume  that  the  Ether  which  pervades 
the  universe,  extending  far  beyond  those  regions  from 

199 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

which  the  light  of  the  most  distant  star  has  been 
traveling  to  us  for  hundreds  of  years  since  it  was 
emitted,  should  be  the  birthplace  and  dwelling-place 
of  primordial  motion,  rather  than  that  each  star, 
nebula  or  mass  of  ponderable  molecules  should  be 
the  original  source  of  an  independent,  inborn  energy. 

Whether  the  atoms  of  the  Ether  are  or  are  not 
the  cause  of  gravitation,  we  know  that  the  ether  is 
the  conveyer  to  us  of  all  other  energy — that  it  alone 
is  the  occupant  of  infinite  space — that  it  binds  to- 
gether in  one  connected  whole  the  infinity  of  worlds, 
the  universe  of  matter.  It  reveals  to  us  also  that 
what  we  call  MATTER  is  something  known  to  us  only 
by  the  manifestations  of  forces,  indestructible  and 
eternal. 

If  the  diffusion  of  heat,  as  stated  by  Lord  Kelvin 
and  others,  is  absolute,  and  the  consequent  dissipation 
of  energy  (Entropy)  irreversible — which  it  would  not 
necessarily  be  if  the  atomic  theory  of  the  Ether  is 
the  true  one — the  Ether  must  ultimately  receive  as 
heat  vibrations  the  total  amount  of  heat  emitted  by 
the  suns  (stars)  that  has  not  been  converted  into  other 
forms  of  energy,  or  that,  having  been  so  converted, 
again  on  its  expenditure  appears  as  heat  of  low 
intensity.  We  have  no  positive  evidence  from  the 
knowledge  or  the  history  of  the  past,  in  astronomical 
records  or  observed  facts,  that  such  dissipation  and 

200 


THE  DISSIPATION  OF  ENERGY 

loss  of  solar  energy  has  occurred.  The  rate  of  loss 
may  be  too  low  and  historic  time  too  short  for  the 
fact  to  be  determined.  In  reference  to  this,  J.  Clerk 
Maxwell  remarks :  "  The  idea  of  dissipation  of 
energy  depends  upon  the  extent  of  our  knowledge. 
Available  energy  is  energy  which  we  can  direct  into 
any  desired  channel.  Dissipated  energy  is  energy 
which  we  cannot  lay  hold  of  and  direct  at  pleasure, 
such  as  the  energy  of  the  confused  agitation  of  mole- 
cules which  we  call  heat  (of  low  intensity).  The 
notion  of  dissipated  energy  could  not  occur  to  a 
being  who  could  not  turn  any  of  the  energies  of 
nature  to  account,  or  to  one  who  could  trace  the 
motion  of  every  molecule  and  seize  it  at  the  right 
moment.  It  is  only  to  a  being  in  the  intermediate 
stage,  who  can  lay  hold  of  some  forms  of  energy 
while  others  elude  his  grasp,  that  energy  appears  to 
be  passing  inevitably  from  the  available  to  the  dissi- 
pated state."  *  According  to  the  one  view  here  pre- 
sented, the  atomic  motion  of  the  Ether  is  the  beginning 
of  all — the  birthplace  of  energy.  According  to  the 
other  view,  that  of  a  solid  Ether,  it  is  its  end  and 
graveyard  :  Entropy  !  Which  is  it  ? 

*  J.  Clerk  Maxwell.    Ency.  Brit.     9th  Edit.    Vol.  7. 
201 


CHAPTER  XVI 

GEOGNOSY  AND   FORMATION  OF  THE 

CRUST — RESUME  OF  THE  PAST  PAGES. 

THE  Science  of  Mineralogy  teaches  us  to  read  in 
the  minerals  that  the  crust  of  the  Earth  exposes  to 
us  the  records  of  past  chemical  actions  that  now  rest 
quiet  in  their  affinities;  satisfied  and  permanent  under 
the  present  conditions  of  temperature  and  atmospheric 
pressure.  How  many  of  these  minerals  were  formed 
it  is  often  impossible  to  conceive.  In  what  way  the 
Carbon  of  the  Diamond,  for  instance,  was  enabled  to 
crystallize  into  the  relatively  large  masses  in  which  it 
is  found  is  a  problem  hard  to  solve.  The  crust  of  the 
earth,  so  far  as  accessible  to  us,  is  composed  almost  en- 
tirely of  oxidized  bodies ;  the  compounds  of  Chlorine 
with  the  alkaline  metals,  with  Calcium  and  Mag- 
nesium— more  rarely  native  Copper  and  the  Metallic 
Sulphides  being  nearly  the  only  exceptions.  The 
great  density  of  the  earth,  as  a  whole,  compared  to 
that  of  the  materials  forming  the  crust — which  alone 
is  accessible  to  us,  is  as  5.5  is  to  2.7,  while  water, 

202 


THE  INTERIOR    OF  THE  EARTH 

which  constitutes  two-thirds  of  the  surface  has  a 
density  of  only  1 .  ;  proves  that  the  inner  mass  of 
the  earth  beneath  the  crust  is  composed  of  much 
heavier  substances  than  the  crust  itself.  After 
making  due  allowance  for  all  possible  increase  of 
density  by  compression  from  the  superincumbent  ex- 
terior, it  necessitates  the  view  that  the  interior  is 
formed  by  the  heavier  metals,  with  possibly  some  of 
their  sulphides.  The  fallen  aerolites  by  their  analysis 
support  this  view,  since  most  of  them  consist  of  me- 
tallic iron  united  with  small  percentages  of  nickel, 
cobalt  and  other  metals,  showing  the  absence  of 
oxygen  in  their  former  state.  Native  or  metallic 
iron  is  never  found  on  or  in  the  earth,  excepting  very 
rarely  in  the  form  of  small  metallic  grains  in  Ba- 
salt ;  the  latter  a  product  of  ejections  of  lava,  or  fused 
volcanic  matter,  from  fissures  in  the  rocks  of  the 
earth's  surface.  This  condition  of  the  heavier  metals 
of  the  earth's  interior  is  what  might  be  expected  from 
the  theory  of  the  earth's  evolution,  the  high  tempera- 
ture of  the  molten  mass  dissociating  the  elements,  and, 
as  the  molecules  cooled,  permitting  the  denser  and  more 
condensible  atoms  to  become  the  centre  of  the  form- 
ing mass.  After  the  earth  became  cool  enough  to 
allow  the  present  conditions  of  chemical  affinities  to 
exist,  the  metals  were  excluded  by  their  own  mass 
from  all  but  external  surface  contact  with  oxygen, 
203 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

as  well  in  its  union  with  hydrogen — water — which  the 
hot  metals  might  decompose,  as  with  the  uncombined 
oxygen  of  the  air,  diluted  by  the  chemically  indif- 
ferent Nitrogen,  with  which  it  is  mechanically  mixed 
but  not  chemically  united. 

Carbon,  which  in  its  first  molecular  condition  was 
probably  combined  with  Silicon,  with  Calcium  or 
with  the  other  metallic  bases  of  the  earth,  as  carbides, 
would  next  possibly  unite  with  the  oxygen  or  water, 
to  form  at  first  Acetylene,  Methane,  Ethane,  or  other 
carbo-hydrides,  then  later,  with  access  of  air,  by  com- 
bustion forming  Carbon  Dioxide,  setting  silica,  or 
calcic  hydrate,  free ;  perhaps  also  permitting  the 
formation  of  Petroleum,  while  free  oxygen  was  yet 
excluded  from  the  nascent  carbo-hydrides.  The  carbon 
dioxide  formed  would  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 
The  farther  cooling  of  the  earth  would  permit  the 
luxuriant  growth  of  vegetation  that,  absorbing  the 
carbon  dioxide  into  plant  tissues  have  ultimately 
yielded  us  the  coal  measures — the  geologic  condi- 
tions permitting  also  the  formation  of  the  limestones 
of  the  same  measures  from  the  calcic  and  magnesian 
hydrates  arising  from  the  parent  carbides :  thus 
explaining  in  part  the  massive  occurrences  of  calcic 
and  magnesian  carbonates  in  the  Dolomites  and 
other  mountain  ranges,  whose  immense  deposits  seem 
to  require  a  geogenic  theory  for  their  primary  occur- 

204 


SUMMARY  OF  PRECEDING   PAGES 

rence,  and  are  inadequately  accounted  for  by  the 
secondary  metamorphoses  of  coral ine,  sea  shell  and 
infusorial  growths. 

The  consideration  of  the  anterior  geognosy  of  the 
earth,  as  well  as  its  later  geological  evolution  and 
changes,  to  fit  it  for  the  progressive  development  of 
higher  and  higher  forms  of  life,  is  a  subject  so  vast 
in  its  scope  and  so  infinite  in  its  details  as  to  lie 
beyond  the  limits  of  our  purpose. 

In  concluding  our  view  of  inorganic  nature  a  short 
resume"  of  what  thus  far  has  been  said  of  the  PATH 
OF  EVOLUTION  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE,  may  be  of 
service.  We  have  tried  to  show  : 

1st.  That  before  and  during  the  time  of  scholas- 
ticism the  efforts  and  time  of  learned  men  were 
almost  exclusively  spent  in  arguing  upon  and  en- 
deavoring to  reconcile  the  discordant  views  of  the 
followers  of  Plato  and  Aristotle. 

2d.  The  Church  had  adopted  the  Aristotelian 
Philosophy  (which  was  a  mixture  of  the  Platonic 
and  Aristotelian  doctrines)  practically  as  a  matter  of 
faith,  and  rejected  as  heretical  all  theories  that  were 
discordant  with — or  that  even  discussed — the  truth 
thereof. 

3d.  As  early  as  the  Fifteenth  Century,  the  theory 
that  the  Sun  was  the  centre  of  the  solar  system  was 

maintained  by  some  Philosophers.     In  the  Sixteenth 

205 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION. 

Century  it  was  demonstrated  mathematically  to  be 
a  fact,  and  was  so  held  by  those  best  competent  to 
know.  The  Church,  whether  Catholic  or  Protestant, 
refused  acceptance  to  its  demonstration ;  ignored  it, 
or  treated  it  as  a  heresy.  In  the  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury Giordano  Bruno  was  burned  to  death  for  main- 
taining the  doctrine ;  and  Galileo  for  the  same  cause 
was  imprisoned  and  forced  to  recant. 

4th.  Until  the  time  of  Descartes,  the  minds  of 
men,  even  without  reference  to  the  Church,  were 
under  the  guidance  of  authority.  What  Aristotle 
taught  was  what  others  sought  to  know.  Descartes 
threw  away  all  old  learning,  and  tried  to  think  for 
himself.  Better  think  wrongly  than  think  only 
because  others  so  thought. 

5th.  Science  as  yet  was  not.  Chemistry  was  Al- 
chemy, and  Astronomy  was  Astrology.  All  reasoning 
was  deductive  only.  Lord  Bacon  first  taught  that  ex- 
periments and  observations  should  be  made,  and  their 
results  would  lead  to  the  axiom,  or  absolute  truth, 
sought  for.  He  dignified  the  search  into  the  phenom- 
ena of  nature,  which  before  him  had  been  thought 
ignoble  and  debasing. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  gave  the  first  great  demonstration 
of  the  value  of  this  idea  of  science.  His  discoveries, 
not  his  theories,  gave  new  light  to  light  itself,  and 

206 


SUMMARY  OF  PRECEDING  PAGES 

showed  men  the  bonds  that  hold  our  world  in  its 
place  and  course. 

6th.  The  existence  of  the  ethereal  medium  was 
postulated  by  Newton  as  essential  to  the  theory  of 
light  and  to  the  existence  of  gravitation.  The 
theory  of  an  interplanetary  Ether  has  been  held 
since  more  than  500  years  B.  c.  The  doctrine  then 
rested  on  a-priori  reasoning  only ;  since  Newton's 
time  the  study  of  the  conditions  of  light,  heat  and 
electricity  has  necessitated  the  assumption  that  such 
a  medium  fills  interstellar  space  and  the  interstices  of 
matter.  From  the  very  nature  of  its  supposed  pro- 
perties it  must  be  impossible  to  show  its  physical  pre- 
sence; but  the  coincidence  between  the  observed  phe- 
nomena in  the  transmission  of  the  three  forms  of 
energy  above  named,  and  the  properties  that  such  a 
medium  would  necessarily  possess,  are  so  many  and  so 
varied  that  the  non-existence  of  the  Ether  seems 
impossible. 

The  nature  of  the  cause  of  gravitation,  though 
most  probably  dependent  also  upon  the  Ether,  or  being 
one  of  its  forms  of  motion,  is  still  an  undetermined 
problem.  It  is  probable  that  the  Ether  possesses  the 
characteristics  of  a  gas,  as  known  under  the  Kinetic 
theory,  excepting  that  its  atomic  motion  is  inherent 
in  itself,  and  that  its  vibratory  molar  or  isotropic 

207 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

motion  is  the  transference  of  heat,  light  and  electric- 
ity.    It  is  not  ponderable  matter. 

7th.  All  substances  are  composed  of  atoms  com- 
bined into  molecular  masses.  These  molecules  are 
in  constant  motion,  their  condition  varying  from  that 
of  a  solid,  in  which  they  have  only  vibratory  motion, 
to  that  of  a  liquid,  in  which  they  have  vibratory  and 
also  limited  translatory  motion,  and  to  that  of  a  gas  in 
which  they  have '  vibratory  motion  as  a  consistent 
molar  substance,  or  mass,  and  also  unlimited  molec- 
ular, translatory  motion.  These  three  conditions  are 
dependent  upon  that  state  of  inter-atomic  motion 
called  heat.  It  is  supposed  to  be  absent  entirely 
from  all  matter  at  the  temperature  of  the  absolute 
zero  ( —  460  degrees  F.).  By  which  absence  of  heat 
all  bodies  previously  gases  or  liquids  would  become 
solids,  and  all  vibratory  motion  in  matter,  such  as 
heat,  would  cease.  With  the  increase  of  the  atomic 
motion  of  heat,  the  several  stages  of  fusion  or 
liquidity,  and  of  vaporization,  or  the  gaseous  state, 
appear.  A  definite  amount  of  heat  motion  dis- 
appearing as  heat  in  each  change  of  state,  being 
transformed  into  the  increased  molecular  motion  of 
the  liquid  or  of  the  gas  (with  water  144  degrees  F., 
in  the  melting  of  ice ;  965  degrees  F.  in  water  when 
boiling).  The  molecules  of  a  gas  move  constantly  in 
right  lines  in  all  directions  until  they  meet  in  colli- 

208 


SUMMARY  OF  PRECEDING  PAGES 

sion  one  with  another,  or  with  the  walls  restraining 
their  expansion. 

8th.  The  discovery  that  the  ultimate  atoms  of 
matter  were  of  natures  different  one  from  another, 
having  affinities  for  certain  atoms  in  preference  to 
others,  and  where  combining  with  each  other,  doing 
so  only  in  definite  ratios  peculiar  to  each  elementary 
atom,  established  Chemistry  upon  a  scientific  basis. 
The  abstract  nature  of  chemical  affinity,  or  that  which 
causes  the  combination  of  atoms  into  molecules 
possessing  other  and  new  properties,  is  still  unknown. 
We  know  that  each  element  has  definite  and  peculiar 
properties,  but  why  they  are  different  we  know  not. 

9th.  The  atoms  of  matter  are  indestructible,  nor 
can  they  be  created.  Energy  is  equally  incap- 
able of  being  created  and  of  being  destroyed.  We 
can  change  the  combinations  of  the  atoms  and  the 
manifestations  of  energy.  The  latter  is  brought  to 
us  in  the  form  of  heat  from  the  Sun,  the  centre  of 
our  Solar  system,  through  the  medium  of  the  Ether. 
Apparently,  energy  is  lost  to  the  earth  through  the 
same  medium,  into  which  it  passes  as  diffused  heat. 
Whether  this  is  really  so,  or  whether  it  is  merely 
an  exchange  of  diffused  solar  heat  for  gravitation 
or  other  forms  of  energy  exerted  by  the  ether  upon 
the  sun  and  planets,  is  a  problem  that  has  been  but 
little  discussed  and  is  as  yet  unsolved. 
H  209 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

10th.  We  have  learned  thus  far  by  the  observa- 
tion of  nature's  phenomena  that  a  uniform  system 
exists  throughout — that  no  break  occurs  in  the 
chain  of  causation.  All  the  processes  have  an  estab- 
lished order  in  which  they  move  and  have  ever  moved- 
What  are  called  the  "  Laws  of  Nature  "  is  simply 
the  recognition  of  the  fact  that,  so  long  as  the  condi- 
tions in  which  phenomena  occur,  remain  the  same, 
the  phenomena  will  be  the  same.  No  change  can  or 
will  occur  without  an  adequate  and  sufficient  cause, 
itself  determined  by  existing  relations  that  are  estab- 
lished between  elementary  matter  and  all  the  forms 
of  energy. 

In  the  inorganic  world  the  combinations  formed 
and  the  phenomena  shown  by  a  group  of  molecules 
remain  permanently  unchanged  so  long  as  the  surround- 
ing conditions  outside  of  the  mass  remain  the  same. 
Even  the  explosive  combinations  of  Nitrogen  with 
Chlorine,  or  with  other  elements,  remain  unaltered 
if  not  exposed  to  mechanical  or  vibratory  motion. 
The  constituents  of  a  mineral  when  once  united 
stay  unchanged,  unless  new  surfaces  are  presented  to 
the  air  or  water,  or  changes  in  temperature  occur. 
Rocks  and  mountains  rise  or  are  washed  away ;  but 
the  earth's  contraction,  often  producing  volcanoes  and 
earthquakes,  causes  the  one,  and  the  rain,  heat  or 
frost  the  other.  The  planets  continue  in  their 

210 


SUMMARY  OF  PRECEDING   PAGES 

courses,  but  would  move  from  it  in  a  right  line,  a 
tangent  to  their  orbits,  under  the  impulse  to  preserve 
their  velocity  and  direction,  were  they  not  deflected 
constantly  from  their  direction  by  a  force  acting  at 
right  angles  to  their  tangents,  causing  them  to  gravi- 
tate towards  the  sun.  So  it  is  with  all  around  us. 
That  which  is,  is.  The  cause  that  made  it  as  it  is 
now,  continues.  The  fiery  glow  that  once  held  this 
globe  a  molten  mass,  as  our  sister  planet,  Jupiter, 
is  yet ;  died  away  millions  of  years  ago ;  unless 
Solar  changes  come,  the  mineral  world  will  remain 
essentially  unaltered ;  until  then  Birth  does  not 
enter  it,  nor  will  Death  affect  it. 

211 


CHAPTER  XVII 
LIFE 

LIFE  COMES  ONLY  FROM  LIFE — HAECKEL'S  MONERA. 
BACTERIA — PHAGOCYTES,  OR  WHITE  CORPUSCLES. 

HERBERT  SPENCER  very  truly  says :  "  To  those 
who  accept  the  general  doctrine  of  Evolution  it 
needs  scarcely  to  be  pointed  out  that  classifications 
are  subjective  conceptions  which  have  no  absolute 
demarcations  in  nature  corresponding  to  them.  They 
are  appliances  by  which  we  limit  and  arrange  the 
matters  under  investigation,  and  so  facilitate  our 
thinking." 

This  remark,  prefacing  his  endeavor  to  define  what 
Life  is,  and  intended  to  lead  up  by  successive  steps 
to  his  definition  ultimately  given,  though  true  in  its 
general  bearing,  is  certainly  not  applicable  in  our 
present  state  of  knowledge  to  the  classification  which 
separates  that  which  has  life,  from  that  which  has  it 
not. 

Like  almost  every  term  of  wide  signification,  it  is 
difficult  to  define  exactly  what  Life  is.  Herbert 

212 


MR.    SPENCERS  DEFINITION  OF  LIFE 

Spencer,  after  carefully  weighing  each  word  and  its 
meaning,  gives  this  :  "  Life  is  the  definite  combination 
of  heterogeneous  changes,  both  simultaneous  and 
successive,  in  correspondence  with  external  co-exist- 
ences and  sequences."  John  Fiske*  remarks  that 
metaphysicians  object  that  this  is  a  definition,  not  of 
Life,  but  of  the  circumstances  in  which  Life  is  mani- 
fested," but  adds  that  Mr.  Lewes  answers  "that 
Life  is  a  process.  It  is  neither  a  substance  nor  a 
force,"  and  approves  of  the  definition  as  appropriate. 
In  this  instance,  apparently,  the  metaphysicians  are 
correct.  Mr.  Spencer's  definition  is  not  a  definition  of 
the  process  or  processess  that  either  constitute  or 
manifest  life  ;  it  is  a  statement  of  the  conditions,  with- 
out which  life  is  excluded,  rather  than  a  description 
of  what  Life  is.  This  is  shown,  not  only  in  the  sen- 
tence itself,  but  also  in  the  chapters  of  Mr.  Spencer's 
Biology,  wherein  he  carefully  adds  to  the  partial 
definition  as  at  first  given,  word  after  word,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  definitions  of  other  and  older 
writers,  whose  definitions  embraced  too  wide  fields, 
including  therein  crystallization,  the  action  of  galvanic 
batteries,  the  changes  by  decomposition  in  a  dead 
body,  etc.  Since  his  definition  was  published,  nearly 
forty-five  years  ago,  the  doctrine  of  the  conversion  and 
the  conservation  of  Energy  has  become  more  firmly 

*  Cosmic  Philosophy.    Vol.  2d.    P.  67. 
213 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

established.  The  physics  of  the  Ether  now  place 
together,  if  not  identify  as  one  and  the  same,  phenom- 
ena which  were  once  considered  to  have  nothing  in 
common.  Life  is  now  thought  to  be  directly  and 
absolutely  dependent  upon  the  energy  exerted  by  and 
through  the  Ether. 

The  definition  of  Life  here  given  expresses  better 
what  it  is  now  thought  to  be  than  the  one  that  was 
formulated  by  Herbert  Spencer  forty  odd  years  ago. 

Life  is  that  form  of  Energy,  which,  through  an 
existing  organism,  alters  and  assimilates  similar  and 
dissimilar  molecules  into  combinations  with  the  orig- 
inal structure,  and  which,  though  keeping  or  increas- 
ing its  own  organism  and  its  functions,  can  separate 
a  part  of  its  substance  to  form  a  new  body  with 
properties  and  powers  like  its  own. 

In  this  statement  recognition  is  given  to  the  cor- 
relation of  the  energy  that  life  manifests  with  other 
forms  of  energy.  It  is  endeavored,  later  on,  to  show 
also  that  all  the  phenomena  that  Life  offers,  includ- 
ing sensation,  consciousness  and  will,  have  therein 
their  origin ;  the  medium,  the  Plasmodium  of  plant 
or  animal  life,  being  the  mechanism  only  through 
which  this  protean  power  finds  expression.  The 
mechanism  may  be,  in  the  simpler  forms  of  life,  ap- 
parently without  differentiation  of  parts,  but  becomes 
highly  differentiated  and  complex  in  organization  as 

214 


LIFE   COMES   ONLY  FROM  LIFE 

the  life  of  the  class  rises  higher  and  higher  in  func- 
tion and  capacities.  The  mechanisms  thus  required 
are  and  can  only  be  derived  from  an  organism  already 
existing.  For  it  is  proved  as  clearly  as  it  is  possible 
to  prove  a  negative  that  spontaneous  generation  does 
not  exist. 

It  is  not  probable,  but  it  may  be,  that  the  future 
will  reveal  to  us  conditions  that  determine  the  forma- 
tion of  an  organic  living  cell,  or  its  plasmodium,  from 
its  inorganic  constituents  otherwise  than  from  a  pre- 
existing parent  organism.  As  yet  life  has  never  been 
brought  by  man  directly  into  being  from  the  inorganic 
world,  though  every  conceivable  means  has  been  tried. 
Many  persons  have  thought  that  they  had  shown  the 
formation  of  life  in  solutions  protected  from  the  in- 
troduction of  existing  life  ;  but  careful  examination 
has  always  shown  that  in  someway  access  to  the  outer 
world  had  been  permitted,  or  the  pre-existing  life 
therein  had  not  been  destroyed.  With  greater  care 
the  maxim,  "  Omne  vivum  e  vivo,"  has  invariably 
proved  to  be  true. 

The  phenomena  that  constitute  Life,  in  its  origin 
and  relation  to  those  of  Inorganic  nature,  are  best 
studied  in  its  lowest  and  simplest  forms,  especially 
in  those  of  Plant  life.  Haeckel  and  many  other 
writers,  in  treating  of  the  early  forms  of  life,  higher 
in  type  than  the  so-called  Monera,  have  dwelt  almost 

215 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

exclusively  upon  the  developments  of  the  details  of 
Animal  life,  neglecting  the  simpler  structures  of 
Plant  life.  This  procedure,  though  natural  enough  to 
the  professed  Biologist,  is  scarcely  so  well  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  general  reader,  who  can  seldom  re- 
fer to  the  animal  structure  itself.  The  greater  com- 
plexity of  the  animal  organism,  even  though  of  a 
low  type,  compared  to  that  of  the  plant,  renders  it  far 
more  difficult  to  follow  the  initial  phenomena  that 
life  manifests,  which,  even  in  plants,  lie  almost  be- 
yond human  understanding.  For  this  reason  atten- 
tion has  been  drawn,  with  a  few  exceptions,  to  the 
study  of  plant  life  only.  It  alone  can  show  the  divid- 
ing line  between  the  inorganic  world  and  organic 
life — its  origin  and  its  reproduction.  All  who  choose 
can  readily  watch  and  study  it. 

The  simple  cell  of  a  protococcus,  or  the  protean 
forms  of  an  amoeba — the  one  believed  to  belong  to 
plant  life,  the  other  to  animal  life,  and  each  so 
small  as  to  be  invisible  to  unaided  vision — yet  contain 
within  themselves  that  mystery  of  existence :  the 
potency  of  life.  The  doctrine  of  Evolution  teaches 
us  that  from  these  beginnings  may  be  evolved  the 
highest  types  of  life.  The  infinite  varieties  of  cel- 
lular structure,  the  formation  of  tissue,  the  occurrence 
of  chlorophyll  in  the  delicate  green  leaf,  whose 
wonder-working  power  maintains  breath  and  food 

216 


THE   LOWEST  FORMS   OF  LIFE 

for  all  that  breathe  or  live ;  the  noblest  forms  of 
animal  life,  all  may  be  traced  back  to  the  modifica- 
tions of  these  or  similar  primordial  structures.  They 
are  disseminated  widely  throughout  all  nature.  It  is 
difficult  to  exclude  their  presence  when  we  wish  to. 
They  can  be  destroyed  by  heat  or  by  boiling,  but, 
like  creatures  of  a  higher  order,  though  we  destroy 
them,  we  cannot  create  them. 

The  chemical  composition  of  these  bodies,  or  of 
Protoplasm,  is  nearly  identical,  whether  in  plants  or 
animals,  all  consisting  of  albumonoids — themselves 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen, 
with  small  quantities  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 
Water  constitutes  usually  over  eighty  per  cent,  of 
their  mass.  It  is  very  difficult  with  some  of  the 
lowest  forms  to  decide  whether  they  should  be  viewed 
as  plants  or  animals.  They  move  from  place  to 
place,  but  are  without  organs  of  any  kind,  many  of 
them  being  formless,  gelatinous  masses,  whose  shape 
constantly  changes  by  the  protrusion  of  any  one  por- 
tion of  their  mass  in  one  or  another  direction,  for  loco- 
motion, or  to  absorb  through  any  part  of  their  sub- 
stance such  material  as  they  feed  upon.  Haeckle 
places  them  in  a  specific  class — "  Monera  " — as  being 
neither  animal  nor  plant.  Of  these  the  Amoeba  are 
placed  by  other  writers  in  the  animal  line,  principally 
on  account  of  the  nature  of  their  food,  but  also  from 
217 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

their  general  resemblance  to  the  gelatinous  bodies  of 
the  Foraminifera,  or  shell-forming  Rhizopods.  Other 
gelatinous,  formless  masses,  the  Myzomycetes,  are 
considered  to  be  Fungi,  because  their  slimy  substance 
passes  into  another  life  stage,  becomes  fixed,  and  pro- 
duce sporophores,  with  cell  formation.  In  the  one 
stage  they  might  be  rightly  called  animals,  and  have 
often  been  so  classed.  In  the  second  or  germ-bearing 
stage  they  more  resemble  plants. 

A  widely  spread  family  of  the  lowest  forms  of 
vegetable  organism,  or  of  Haeckle's  Monera,  visible 
only  under  the  microscope,  are  those  known  as  Bac- 
teria, Bacilli,  Microbes,  etc.  Their  influence  on  the 
higher  forms  of  life,  both  animal  and  vegetable,  for 
good  and  for  evil  is  becoming  daily  more  manifest. 
To  the  presence  of  some  of  them  are  due  the  frightful 
pestilences  that  have  scourged  mankind.  They  are 
the  cause  of  many  of  the  specific  contagious  and 
epidemic  sicknesses  that  afflict  us;  of  Anthrax  in 
flocks,  cattle  and  man ;  of  typhoid,  of  typhus,  and  of 
other  fevers.  It  is  more  than  probable  that  consump- 
tion, pneumonia  in  its  typhoid  form,  in  fact,  most 
diseases  not  arising  from  organic  lesions,  non-assimi- 
lation, or  functional  defects,  owe  their  origin  and  con- 
tinued existence  to  these  foreign  growths  in  the  animal 
economy,  or  to  the  morbific  changes  their  presence 
induces.  In  surgery,  the  precautions  taken  to  destroy 


THE  EVIL  OF  BACTERIA 

their  germs,  if  present,  and  to  avoid  their  later  intro- 
duction from  without,  have  revolutionized  the  art. 
Operations  are  now  undertaken  with  impunity  and 
with  the  assurance  of  success  that  less  than  a  genera- 
tion ago  would  have  been  almost  as  necessarily  fatal  as 
decapitation  itself.  With  proper  care  their  exclusion 
and  consequently,  septicaemia;  can  almost  always  be 
avoided. 

Instruments  of  evil,  as  Bacteria  thus  often  are, 
many  of  them  are  yet  of  great  utility.  The  Bacteria 
Termo  is  most  frequently  the  organism  by  which  the 
effete  tissues  of  the  dead  animal  or  plant  are  decom- 
posed, and  their  elements  returned  to  the  soil  or 
atmosphere,  again  to  enter  into  new  living  struc- 
tures. If  any  forms  of  once  living  tissue,  muscular 
fibre,  meat  broth,  farinaceous  food,  vegetables  or  their 
infusions,  are  subjected  to  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water,  so  as  to  destroy  the  Bacteria  and  germs  that 
may  be  present,  the  said  substances  may  be  preserved 
indefinitely,  even  if  the  free  access  of  air  be  per- 
mitted ;  provided  that  care  be  taken  to  filter  out,  or 
otherwise  remove,  all  germs  that  may  be  present  in 
the  entering  air.  Without  Bacteria,  the  Earth  would 
be  covered  with  the  dead  remains  of  past  vitality, 
locking  up  in  a  useless  form  the  molecules  that  have 
served  their  part  in  maintaining  the  life  that  is  gone, 
but  which  the  Bacteria  set  free  to  enter  the  store- 

219 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

house  of  nature,  again  to  be  drawn  upon  to  minister 
to  new  lives  to  come. 

When  we  consign  the  body  to  the  grave,  "  the  dust 
to  dust,"  it  is  not  to  be,  as  Job  says,  "that  the 
worm  shall  feed  sweetly  upon  him,"  for  a  host  of 
creatures  invisible  to  sight  have  taken  possession 
long  before,  and  have  begun  their  work.  The  grave 
rather  hinders  than  helps  it ;  but  it  covers  up  and 
hides  from  our  sight  the  changes  that  would  offend 
our  senses,  until  their  work  is  done,  and  the  elements 
— through  the  medium  of  plant-life — again  may  live. 

Considered  from  the  above  standpoint,  Kerner 
Von  Marilaun  (Das  Pflanzenleben)  justly  says :  "  The 
horror  of  putridity  is  inborn  with  every  man,  and 
all  that  is  associated  with  it,  the  whole  brood  of 
Bacteria,  are  looked  upon  with  half  averted  eyes. 
It  requires  a  sort  of  self-restraint  to  give  to  the 
processes  thereof  that  consideration  which  they 
deserve.  When  we  overcome  our  repugnance,  and 
without  prejudice  observe,  we  are  forced  to  conclude 
that  to  putrefaction  properly  belongs  the  continuance 
of  vegetable  and  of  animal  life.  Were  the  innumer- 
able plants  that  die  within  a  year  not  decomposed, 
but  permitted  to  remain,  a  certain  amount  of  Nitrogen 
and  of  Carbon  would  be  withdrawn  from  the  circle 
of  life.  If  this  were  repeated  from  year  to  year,  a 
time  would  come  at  last  when  all  Nitrogen  and 

220 


THE   GOOD    OF  BACTERIA 

Carbon  would  be  held  within  the  bodies  of  the  dead, 
and  the  earth  would  become  a  vast  field  of  corpses."  * 

Some  Bacteria  are  efficient  in  enabling  the  roots  of 
certain  plants  and  trees  to  obtain  nitrogen  from  Am- 
monia Salts  and  from  the  air.  It  is  now  thought 
that  they  are  more  important  factors  in  providing 
food  to  plants  than  was  dreamt  of  heretofore. 

The  gases  evolved  from  the  decay  of  bodies,  animal 
especially,  contain  ammoniacal  sulphides,  phosphides, 
butyrates,  volatile  fatty  acids,  and  other  evil-smelling 

*  Anton  Kerner  von  Marilaun  was  born  at  Mautern,  Lower 
Austria,  November  12,1831;  died  at  Vienna,  June  20,  1898.  He 
studied  in  Vienna,  and  practiced  medicine  there  for  two  years;  in 
1855  he  was  appointed  to  a  professorship,  and  in  1858  was  made  the 
Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Technical  High  School  of  Ofen.  From 
this  time  he  devoted  himself  exclusively  to  the  study  of  Botany. 
He  held  the  Chair  of  Professor  of  Botany  at  the  Poly  technical  Schools 
of  Buda;  of  Natural  History 'at  the  University  of  Innsbruch,  and  of 
Botany  at  the  University  of  Vienna,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Academie  des  Sciences.  In  1877  he  was  ennobled;  created  "  Hitter 
von  Marilaun,"  and  made  Director  of  the  Museum  and  the  Botanical 
Garden  in  Vienna.  He  gave  much  attention  to  the  Alpine  Flora, 
and  instituted  experimental  gardens,  at  high  elevations,  in  the 
Tyrol. 

He  published  many  works ;  among  them  the  "  Flora  der  Bauern- 
garten  in  Deutschland,"  "  Die  Niederostreichischen  Weiden,""Die 
Alpenwirtschaft  in  Tyrol,"  "  Die  Abhangigkeit  der  Pflanzengestalt 
vou  Klima  und  Boden,"  Die  Schutzmittel  des  Pollens  gegen  vor- 
zeitiger  Befruchtung,"  "  Die  Schutzmittel  der  Bliiten  gegen  unberu- 
fene  Gaste."  His  largest  work  is  "Das  Pflanzenleben."  1891. 
2  vols.  It  is  admirable  for  its  profuse  illustrations  in  the  text  and  very 
many  beautifully  executed  chromo-types,  but  most  admirable  for  the 
clear,  though  elaborate,  description,  of  every  stage  in  the  physiology 
of  plant  life  and  modes  of  reproduction.  A  second  edition  of  the 
work  appeared  in  1898. 

221 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

compounds  that  serve  to  warn  off  and  to  keep  away 
the  living,  to  whom  the  bacteria  and  the  immediate 
products  of  decomposition  would  be  injurious.  After 
their  work  is  done  the  bacteria  are  carried  off  in  the 
water,  or  when  dried  blown  about  and  scattered  again 
throughout  the  world.  All  that  finally  remain  of 
the  organism  are  some  nitrates  and  some  little  earthy 
substances  that  the  living  body  had  gathered  in. 
Dust  and  Ashes ! 

The  Bacteria  are  the  smallest  of  known  organized 
beings  :  the  largest  of  them  are  not  over  -—^  of  an 
inch  iii  diameter,  the  smallest  less  than  ~.  They 
consist  of  protoplasm,  and  have  the  shape  of  sphe- 
roids, or  of  short  cylinders,  rods,  and  threads.  Of 
these,  some  are  straight,  others  bow-shaped,  curved 
or  spiral.  The  exterior,  when  moist,  is  gelatinous, 
but  when  dried  becomes  like  a  crust.  They  grow 
and  multiply  with  astonishing  rapidity  in  fluids  suit- 
able for  their  nourishment.  The  rod-like  shapes 
extend  in  length,  and  then  divide  into  two  equal 
parts — each  half  again  dividing,  when  a  certain 
length  is  attained.  Under  favorable  conditions,  in 
most  varieties,  spores  or  germs  are  formed.  These  are 
spherical,  with  thick  walls,  and  refract  light  strongly. 
It  has  been  observed  that  a  new  formed  bacterian 
cell  within  twenty  minutes  will  so  increase  in  length 
as  to  reach  the  limit  of  its  normal  growth ;  then  it 

222 


RAPID   GROWTH  OF   BACTERIA 

will  divide  in  two  ;  and  so  repeat  indefinitely.  It  has 
been  calculated  that  from  a  single  cell  within  eight 
hours  over  sixteen  million  new  cells  are  formed. 
Such  growth  can,  of  course,  take  place  only  at  the 
expense  of  the  nourishing  fluid.  The  most  favorable 
temperature  for  them  is  from  95  to  99  degrees  F. 
When  we  consider  that  this  is  the  normal  tempera- 
ture of  the  blood,  and  that  it  contains  all  the  elements 
required  for  their  development,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand why  they  should  so  rapidly  develop  therein, 
and  what  serious  interferences  with  the  vital  processes 
must  necessarily  follow.  Their  excessive  minuteness 
gives  them  access  to  every  part  of  the  system,  whither 
they  are  carried  with  the  blood.  It  can  thus  be  seen  why 
the  Comma  Bacillus — the  cause  of  Asiatic  Cholera — 
should  so  rapidly  cause  death.  The  wonder  is,  why 
do  not  all  die  whom  the  disease  attacks  ?  The  air 
we  inhale  and  the  water  we  drink  usually  contain 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  the  spores  of  bacteria,  or 
bacteria  themselves,  many  of  which  are  destructive  to 
health  or  life.  A  single  one  of  them  is  sufficient  to 
produce  thousands  of  their  kind  within  a  few  hours. 
Life  in  the  higher  organisms  would  be  scarcely 
possible  were  it  not  that  a  constant  battle  is  waged 
against  them  in  the  blood  itself. 

Besides  the  red  globules  that  are  the  main  active 
constituents  of  the    blood,  and    upon  whose  living 

223 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

powers  life  depends,  there  are  present  in  much  smaller 
numbers  the  white  corpuscles.  There  is  in  health 
only  about  one  of  them  to  over  three  hundred  and 
fifty  of  the  red,  but  their  aggregate  number  exceeds 
one  thousand  million  in  the  blood  of  an  average  man. 
When  viewed  ordinarily  under  the  microscope,  they 
are  seen  to  be  colorless  globules  of  protoplasm,  a 
little  larger  than  the  red  corpuscles.  If  the  drop  of 
blood  containing  them  is  warmed  up  again  to  the 
normal  blood  temperature,  they  are  then  seen  to  be 
full  of  life,  and  are,  or  at  least  closely  resemble, 
Amceba.  They  throw  out  their  substance  into  con- 
stantly changing  forms  (Pseudopodia)  or  limb-like 
extensions.  They  move  independently  from  place  to 
place,  and  seize  upon  particles  in  the  fluid  which  they 
absorb  into  their  substance.  They  pass  into  all  the 
vessels  of  the  body  by  means  of  their  contractile 
power  of  changing  shape — through  apertures  far 
smaller  than  their  original  form.  (Dr.  Johannes 
Kanke,  "  Der  Mensch,"  Leipsig,  1887.  B.I.  S.  225). 
Legrand  and  Leville*  describe  experiments  made 
with  the  white  corpuscles  (Leucocytes)  and  the  Bacil- 
lus Subtillus,  in  which  they  have  seen  the  Leucocytes 
seize  and  absorb  the  bacilla.  Other  Leucocytes  then 
join  the  first,  and  attack  and  absorb  as  many  bacilla 
as  they  can.  Those  thus  absorbed  would  completely 

*  Larousse.    Art.  Phagocytes,  1889. 
224 


THE  PROTECTING  LEUCOCYTES 

disappear.  After  having  thus  destroyed  five  or  six 
microbes  they  would  cease,  but  after  a  short  time  re- 
commence again. 

The  observations  of  Metchnikoff  made  in  Pasteur's 
laboratory  show  that  the  avidity  with  which  the  sev- 
eral forms  of  pathogenic  bacteria  are  attacked  by  the 
leucocytes  varies  with  the  immunity  of  the  animal. 
Thus  the  bacilla  of  Anthrax,  that  are  rapidly  fatal  to 
sheep,  cattle,  rabbits,  etc.,  are  seldom  found  in  the 
white  globules  after  their  hypodermic  injection  into 
these  animals,  not  appearing  to  have  been  devoured 
by  the  leucocytes ;  while  under  the  same  conditions 
they  abound  in  the  leucocytes  of  the  dog,  and  other 
animals  who  have  greater  resistance  power  to  the 
disease.  Metchnikoff  gives  as  an  axiom  the  statement 
that  "  the  more  refractory  an  animal  is  to  a  given 
disease,  so  in  proportion  are  its  phagocytes  capable 
of  absorbing  and  destroying  the  microbes  that  cause 
the  said  disease."  Why  is  it,  he  asks,  that  the 
afflux  of  the  white  corpuscles  to  the  point  attacked  by 
the  microbes  varies  in  the  same  animal  with  the  specific 
microbes  present?  This,  he  answers,  is  due  to  the 
curious  property  that  certain  substances,  when  present, 
cause  an  attraction  and  others  a  repulsion  of  the 
Leucocytes;  for  instance,  most  chemical  substances, 
albuminoids,  acids  and  alkalies,  etc.  He  claims  for 
the  leucocytes  an  obscure  consciousness,  at  least,  as 
15  225 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

great  as  that  possessed  by  the  bacteria,  enabling  them 
(the  former)  to  move  to  the  point  that  is  attacked. 
This  faculty,  designated  by  the  name  of  Chemitaxia 
(chimiotaxie),  is  positive  or  negative,  attractive  or  re- 
pulsive, as  the  substance  varies. 

According  to  the  view  of  other  observers,  the 
leucocytes  are  only  the  scavengers  who  remove  the 
dead  substances  in  the  blood.  The  death  of  the 
pathogenic  microbes  is  due  to  the  various  humors  of 
the  body,  especially  the  serum  of  the  blood,  which 
contains  a  toxine  substance  that  is  fatal  to  their  life 
and  that  acts  thus  as  an  antiseptic.  Metchnikoif  him- 
self admits  that  it  is  probable  the  phagocytes  are  not 
the  only  means  of  defense  at  the  disposition  of  the 
organism,  and  that  several  factors  may  jointly  tend 
to  the  same  end.  (Revue  EncyclE*,  1891-1894.) 

The  white  corpuscles  occur  in  great  number  in 
the  spleen,  amounting  normally  to  over  one  to  twenty 
of  the  red  corpuscles.  In  this  organ — whose  especial 
function  is  yet  unknown,  and  which  permits  life  to 
be  sustained  even  after  its  removal — the  white  cor- 
puscles in  disease,  especially  in  some  forms  of  anaemia, 
amount  to  more  than  one  to  three  of  the  red.  The 
spleen  is  the  site  of  the  ultimate  removal  of  most  of 
the  invading  bacteria.  Whether  it  is  also  the  scene 
of  the  formation  of  the  white  and  red  corpuscles,  or 
226 


NO   SPONTANEOUS  GENERATION 

that  of  their  ultimate  destruction,  are  questions  still 
unsolved. 

As  already  mentioned,  Haeckle  placed  these  low 
organisms,  especially  the  amoebic  forms,  in  the  order 
"Monera,"  being  neither  plant  nor  animal.  He 
considered  them  to  be  transition  steps  between  the 
inorganic  and  the  organic  world  and  as  having  their 
origin  in  spontaneous  generation.  This  doctrine,  which 
in  earlier  times  was  generally  held,  was  strongly  advo- 
cated by  him  in  his  "  Morphologic  der  Organ ismen," 
published  in  1866,  and  in  his  later  writings.  The 
lapse  of  over  thirty  years  since  then,  and  the  inde- 
fatigable investigations  of  hundreds  of  learned  and 
skillful  men,  have  failed  in  ever  developing  life 
where  life  did  not  previously  exist.  That  in  past 
geologic  ages  conditions  permitting  it  may  have 
existed  which  do  not  now  exist,  is  possible ;  but  it  is 
opposed  to  all  methods  of  true  science  to  postulate 
as  a  necessary  truth  that  of  which  observation  and 
experiment  has  failed  to  demonstrate  the  possibility  ! 

227 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

THE   FUNGI   CAN   LIVE  ON  ORGANIZED  FOOD   ONLY 
— THE    CAUSE   OF    FERMENTATION — MUSHROOMS, 

LICHENS  —  THEIR        IMPORTANT       FUNCTIONS 

CURIOUS   ANOMALY   IN   THEIR  STRUCTURES. 

BACTERIA  are  now  recognized  as  belonging  to  that 
form  of  vegetable  life  known  as  the  Fungi.  Their 
essential  characteristic  is,  that  even  in  their  highly 
developed  forms  they  are  devoid  of  "  Chlorophyll," 
that  curious  combination  of  protoplasm  that,  in  the 
form  of  green  globules  in  the  leaf,  appear  to  take  the 
place  of  the  red  globules  of  the  blood  in  the  verte- 
brata,  and  like  the  red  globules  nourish  and  support 
their  respective  tissue  formations.  Since  the  presence 
of  Chlorophyll  is  essential  to  the  plant  to  enable  it  to 
assimilate  for  its  nourishment,  carbon,  nitrogen  and 
earthy  salts  from  the  carbon  dioxide  and  nitrogen  of 
the  atmosphere  and  from  the  minerals  of  the  earth, 
it  follows  that  the  fungi  and  all  the  plants  without 
chlorophyll  must  be  either  parasites,  existing  upon  the 
living  juices  of  another  existing  life,  or  Saprophytes, 

228 


THE    YEAST  PLANTS 

organisms  living  on  decaying  matter.  Among  the 
microscopic  forms  of  this  order  are  the  Saccharomyces 
(Torula  cerevisia);  the  well-known  yeast  plant,  the  cause 
of  alcoholic  fermentation ;  the  Lactic  acid  ferment, 
whose  germs  are  not  destroyed  by  ebullition  at  212° 
F.,  that  causes  the  souring  of  milk ;  and  the  various 
varieties  of  mucor  or  mould  plants.  These  germs 
are  met  with  everywhere,  and  seize  greedily  upon 
dead  organic  matter  for  their  food  and  development. 
The  yeast  plant  germs  are  present  upon  grapes  and 
other  fruit,  so  that  when  they  are  crushed  the  juice 
enters  rapidly  into  fermentation.  The  growing  plant 
takes  from  the  molecules  of  grape  sugar  in  solution 
such  atoms  thereof  as  it  needs  for  its  own  nourish- 
ment. The  atoms  remaining  divide  themselves  into 
nearly  equal  proportions  by  weight  of  alcohol  and  of 
carbon  dioxide,  the  latter  escaping  in  the  gaseous  form 
in  effervescence.  Small  quantities  of  succinic  acid 
and  of  glycerine  are  at  the  same  time  formed.  The 
yeast  plant  multiplies  or  grows  both  by  gemmation 
or  throwing  out  buds,  as  well  as  by  the  formation  of 
spores.  The  former  is  essentially  the  same  as  the 
process  of  division  among  the  bacteria,  but  the  new 
cellules  usually  remain  connected  with  their  parent 
cell,  though  the  slightest  pressure  suffices  to  part 
them.  At  a  temperature  below  43°  F.  the  growth  is 
almost  exclusively  by  gemmation  ;  the  process  is  slow 

229 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

and  the  evolution  of  carbon  dioxide  gradual,  so  that 
the  yeast  is  not  buoyed  up  by  it  to  the  surface,  but 
remains  mostly  at  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  This  con- 
stitutes the  lower  yeast  (Unter  Hefe)  of  the  lager 
beer  breweries.  It  is  anaerobic ;  that  is,  its  life  and 
growth  is  independent  of  the  presence  of  Oxygen. 
The  fermentation  thus  produced  is  less  liable  to  be 
contaminated  with  the  growth  of  other  mycodermic 
growths  that  might  cause  acidity  or  viscidity,  and  is 
best  adapted  to  the  fermentation  of  weak  worts  that, 
under  more  rapid  action,  would  pass  beyond  control. 
At  a  higher  temperature,  say  about  70°  F.,  the  upper 
yeast  (Ober  Hefe)  is  formed.  The  growth  is  much 
more  rapid  and  the  evolution  of  Carbon  Dioxide 
more  violent.  Towards  the  latter  part  of  the  process 
a  large  portion  of  the  cellules  contain  spores,  which 
serve  as  new  centres  of  growth,  and  which  are  car- 
ried off  by  the  escaping  gas  and  disseminated  in  the 
atmosphere.  The  fermentation  of  wine  or  other  fruit 
juices  is  of  a  similar  nature,  though  it  is  not  necessary 
to  add  the  yeast  from  previous  operation  as  required 
in  beer  brewing,  the  grape  juice  obtaining  from  con- 
tact with  the  outer  skin  of  the  fruit  when  crushed 
the  germ  of  the  yeast  plant,  whose  growth  starts  the 
fermentation. 

Other  widespread  members  of  the  family  are  the 
Mucor,  or  Mould  plants,  that  attack  most  organic 

230 


MUSHROOMS  AND    OTHER  FUNGI 

substances  when  exposed  in  a  warm,  damp  place ;  the 
Penicilium  Glaucum  that  forms  the  blue  mould  on 
bread,  cheese,  etc.,  is  ubiquitous ;  its  presence  and  that 
of  allied  forms  among  yeast  plants  often  cause  serious 
loss  in  the  wine  and  brewing  industries  by  promoting 
their  own  growth  and  thereby  inducing  other  fer- 
mentations to  the  detriment  of  the  formation  of 
Alcohol. 

The  true  vegetative  portion  of  the  fungi  is  the 
"Mycelium,"  which  in  the  microscopic  forms  thus 
far  noticed  constitutes  the  only  apparent  organism; 
the  spores,  if  seen  at  all,  being  excessively  minute. 
Among  the  larger  fungi  the  mycelium  consists  of  a 
congeries  of  Hypha3,  the  latter  being  the  individual 
threads  or  stems  that  in  the  yeast  plant  or  similar 
growths  form  the  plant  itself  as  visible  to  us.  They 
are  formed  of  cells  of  dense  protoplasm  placed  end 
to  end,  containing  protoplasm  not  distinguishable 
from  other  forms  thereof.  In  many  instances  the 
hyphse  form  closely  interwoven  or  adhering  masses 
of  threads,  which  spread  in  all  directions;  they  pene- 
trate the  substance  of  the  organism  upon  which  they 
are  parasitic  and  which  they  cause  to  decay.  In  the 
larger  fungi,  known  as  Mushrooms,  Toadstools,  etc., 
the  mycelium  exists  only  beneath  the  surface* of  the 
ground,  where  it  may  persist  for  years  unknown.  It 
is  vulgarly  called  the  Spawn  of  the  Mushroom.  The 

23' 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

Thai  1  us  that  appears  on  the  surface  is  the  reproduc- 
tive portion,  corresponding  to  the  inflorescence  of 
flowering  plants,  though  as  far  as  known  it  is  asexual. 
When  grown  it  consists  of  a  fleshy,  cup-shaped  body, 
like  an  opened  umbrella.  The  under  side  thereof  is 
divided  into  numerous  thin,  knife-like  plates  on  which 
are  the  hymenium  and  gills,  on  the  surface  of  which 
are  the  spores.  These  are  excessively  small,  about 
— o5  of  an  inch  in  size  ;  they  develop  into  hyphae 
when  they  meet  with  a  suitable  soil.  For  cultiva- 
tion, the  already  developed  masses  thereof,  the  mycel- 
ium, is  employed,  since  development  from  the  spores 
is  a  slow  and  uncertain  procedure.  These  fungi,  like 
all  of  the  genus,  contain  much  Nitrogen  in  their  compo- 
sition. Many  varieties  are  edible  ;  upwards  of  three 
hundred  kinds  are  known  to  be  wholesome  and  nutri- 
tious. A  smaller  number  of  the  family  are  acrid 
and  a  few  are  highly  poisonous,  especially  the  Amen- 
ita,  which,  as  they  roughly  resemble  the  common 
mushroom  (Agaricus  Campestris),  have  not  unfre- 
quently  caused  death  by  being  mistakenly  eaten  for 
the  latter.  They,  as  well  as  all  the  others,  obtain 
their  nourishment  from  already  existing  organic  mat- 
ter. They  are  incapable  of  assimilating  the  mineral 
or  a3rial  elements  from  the  earth  or  air. 

LICHENS. — When,  in  any  part  of  the  world,  a  rock 
surface  is  exposed  to  the  weather  for  the  first  time, 

232 


LICHENS  LIFE'S   PIONEERS 

there  will  soon  be  found  on  it  a  vegetable  growth 
that  often  resembles  the  dried  bark  of  a  tree,  clinging 
closely  to  the  stone,  and  partaking  of,  or  rather  giving 
to  the  stone  its  dominant  color.  In  dry  weather  it  is 
usually  hard  and  somewhat  friable,  appearing  indeed 
as  if  it  were  the  dead  residue  from  a  former  vegeta- 
tion, rather  than  a  still  living  plant.  In  damp 
weather  the  tissues  absorb  moisture  rapidly,  swell  up 
and  become  partly  or  entirely  green,  or  partly  yellow, 
red  and  grey,  mixed  with  green. 

These  plants,  some  of  them  so  small  even  when 
grouped  together  as  to  seem  rather  a  stain  upon 
the  face  of  the  rock  than  a  living  structure,  are 
Lichens,  the  most  widely  diffused  of  all  forms  of 
vegetation,  extending  from  the  sea-coast  in  the  tropics 
to  the  highest  summits  of  the  arctic  mountains.  They 
are  the  pioneers  of  the  organic  world;  they  seize 
upon  the  naked  rock  for  their  domicile,  and  thrive  and 
multiply  where  nothing  else  can  find  a  foothold. 
Nor  is  their  life  ephemeral :  they  retain  their  posi- 
tion through  the  greatest  drought,  the  highest  heat 
of  the  tropics,  and  the  intense  cold  of  the  highest  arctic 
mountain  summits.  Though  their  constituent  tissues 
die,  they  are  soon  replaced  in  detail  by  new  growths,  so 
that  they  appear  immortal.  The  same  patch  of  lichens 
has  remained  apparently  unchanged  upon  stones  in 
buildings  for  hundreds  of  years.  Probably  the  life 

233 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

of  many  groups  of  them  has  far  surpassed  that  of 
the  longest  lived  tree  known  to  history.  Their  debris, 
when  washed  down  by  rain  from  the  rock  above,  has 
formed  a  soil  retentive  of  the  germs  of  mosses  and 
other  cryptogamia,  they  in  their  turn  when  dead 
decaying.  When  the  successive  increments  have  thus 
formed  enough  humus,  mixed  with  the  rootlets 
(hyphen)  of  the  lichens  and  minute  fragments  of 
rock,  disintegrated  by  the  weather,  they  are  able  to 
give  shelter  and  nourishment  to  the  seeds  of  the 
higher  plants.  Grasses,  weeds,  bushes,  and  at  last 
trees  spring  up,  and  a  forest  comes  into  being.  Such 
has  been  the  path  of  evolution  of  vegetable  life  in  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  It  begins  with  the  simplest  life, 
that  of  an  organism  without  differentiation  of  parts 
other  than  a  simple  cellule ;  it  gradually  gives  place 
to  organisms  of  more  complex  structure  as  the  for- 
mation of  soil  progresses  and  permits  the  acquisition 
of  a  higher  life. 

The  family  of  Lichens  owe  their  preservation,  if 
not  their  existence,  to  an  anomaly  of  structure  pecu- 
liar to  them.  It  has  been  stated  that  all  of  the  fungi 
are  devoid  of  chlorophyll,  that  constituent  of  plant 
life  that  alone  is  capable  of  decomposing  carbon 
dioxide,  appropriating  its  carbon  to  form  starch,  cellu- 
lose or  sugar,  and  rejecting  or  exhaling  again  the  oxy- 
gen into  the  atmosphere.  Plants  without  chlorophyll 

234 


CURIOUS  ANOMALY  IN  LICHENS 

therefore  can  live  only  on  organic  matter  ready  pre- 
pared, and  are  either  sacrophytes — consumers  of  dead 
organisms — or  parasites,  living  upon  the  tissues  or 
juices  of  living  creatures,  from  which  they  derive 
the  juices  for  their  own  support.  In  almost  every 
instance  this  parasitic  life  is  injurious  to  its  host. 
The  latter  suffers  by  the  appropriation  by  another  of 
that  which  had  been  prepared  for  itself,  and  its  death 
often  inevitably  follows.  The  term  parasite  has 
now  the  meaning  of  non-reciprocity,  the  advantages 
being  one-sided  only,  the  one  giving  all  and  receiving 
nothing.  The  Lichen  presents,  however,  a  curious 
condition  different  therefrom,  to  which  the  term  Sym- 
biosis is  applied,  in  which  two  separate  and  distinct 
organisms  inseparably  live  together  to  their  mutual 
advantage.  Either,  without  the  other  would  soon 
perish.  Every  Lichen  is  now  known  to  be  the  com- 
bination of  a  Fungus  and  of  an  Alga,  living  individual 
lives,  but  permanently  associated.  The  fungoid  por- 
tion of  the  lichen  seems  to  be  the  original  plant 
that  seized  upon  the  alga  in  accordance  with  the  para- 
sitic nature  of  the  fungoid  family.  The  association 
thus  formed,  proving  mutually  advantageous,  has  been 
perpetuated,  and  has  become  universal  throughout 
the  numerous  and  various  families  of  lichens.  The 
fungus  is  found  in  several  varieties,  each  of  which  is 
peculiar  to  the  lichens,  and  is  only  found  in  connec- 

235 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tion  with  the  algae  as  a  lichen.  A  few  of  the  same 
algae  are  known  to  exist  with  independent  life  as 
Algce.  Their  union  with  the  fungi  gives  rise  to 
numerous  species  of  lichens.  The  Gonidia,  or  cel- 
lules, con  tain  ing  the  globules  of  chlorophyll,  are  almost 
identical  with  those  of  the  Algae.  Thus  those  of 
Physica  are  like  those  of  Protococcus;  those  of  Col- 
lema  like  those  of  Nostoc;  those  of  Omphalaria  like 
those  of  Chroococcus,  etc.,  etc. 

The  experiment  has  been  made  of  mechanically 
separating  the  structures  of  the  plants  and  cultivating 
them  apart.  The  alga,  a  Protococcus  Viridis, 
grew  and  multiplied  readily.  The  fungus  part 
lived  for  a  time,  did  not  increase,  and  soon  died. 
The  synthesis  of  a  Lichen  has  been  made  by  Gaston 
Bonnier  (Revue  Ency.,  1893).  He  caught  the  spores 
of  the  fungus  on  a  microscopic  slide,  and,  after  the 
necessary  precautions  to  avoid  the  entrance  of  foreign 
germs,  introduced  a  portion  of  the  above-named  algae. 
The  process,  with  the  admission  of  pure  air,  was 
watched  under  the  microscope,  and  showed  the  de- 
velopment in  all  its  stages  of  a  perfect  and  normal 
Lichen.  In  this  union  of  two  lives  the  fungus  fur- 
nishes the  hyphae  that  attach  the  plant  to  the  rock ; 
it  also  furnishes  a  shelter  and  support  to  the  alga 
and  its  spores  through  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold, 
of  drought  and  of  excessive  moisture;  its  own  com- 

236 


THE  ALGJZ  IN  LICHENS 

position,  rich  in  nitrogen,  furnishes  by  endosmose 
that  element  essential  to  plasmodic  structure ;  whilst 
it  in  return  receives  from  the  chlorophyll  cellules 
of  the  algae  the  carbo-hydrides  that  they  have 
formed  from  the  atmosphere,  and  by  which  the  tissues 
and  the  starch-like  or  gelatinoid  elements  of  the  lichen 
can  alone  come  into  being. 

Lichens,  beside  the  important  part  they  play  in  the 
general  economy  of  nature  in  promoting,  as  already 
described,  the  formation  of  soil  for  the  growth  of  the 
higher  order  of  plants,  contain  many  valuable  plants. 
Cetraria,  or  Iceland  Moss,  furnishes  a  valuable  food 
in  regions  where  other  food  is  scarce.  The  Reindeer 
depend  for  their  existence  on  another  variety,  and 
many  valuable  dye-stuffs  are  prepared  from  other 
species. 

237 


CHAPTER  XIX 

ALG.E,  SEAWEED,  CHLOROPHYLL  CELLS,  THEIR 
ORIGIN  AND  USE — EFFECT  ON  RAYS  OF  LIGHT 
— THE  PROVIDERS  OF  OXYGEN — ALL  LIFE  IM- 
POSSIBLE WITHOUT  CHLOROPHYLL — LIGHT  AND 
HEAT  ESSENTIAL  TO  ITS  ACTION. 

THE  Algae,  when  existing  alone,  constitute  the 
lowest  and  simplest  forms  of  green  or  chlorophyll- 
bearing  plants.  Algae  are  mostly  aquatic,  and  live 
either  entirely  in  the  water  or  require  wet  or  con- 
stantly damp  positions,  in  which  only  they  thrive. 
Their  spores,  or  certain  cells  that  split  off  from 
the  others,  can  resist  the  absence  of  moisture,  and 
serve  to  perpetuate  their  growth  when  favorable 
conditions  again  return.  Many  of  them  are  very 
minute.  Desmidiaceae  and  Diatomacea3  in  their 
thousand  varieties  being  microscopic  only,  whilst 
some  of  the  Fucacea  are  among  the  largest  of  all  the 
vegetative  world.  Macrocystis  Pyrifera,  off  the  S. 
and  S.  W.  coast  of  South  America,  sometimes  exceed- 
ing a  thousand  feet  in  length.  The  floating  masses 
238 


THE  ALG& 

of  Sargassum  in  the  sea  beyond  the  Azores  frightened 
Columbus.  From  their  comparatively  simple  con- 
struction, though  belonging  to  the  Chlorophyllian 
plants,  the  processes  of  protoplasmic  movement  and 
structure  can  be  studied  in  the  algae  most  advan- 
tageously. 

The  popular,  though  erroneous,  conception  that 
animal  life  is  essentially  distinguished  from  vegetable 
life  by  the  former  only  having  the  power  of  volun- 
tary motion  is  absolutely  disproved  when  the  growth 
of  an  alga  is  observed.  "The  resemblance  that  the 
earlier  microscopists  saw  in  the  inner  structure  of  the 
plant  tissues  to  the  waxen  cells  of  a  honeycomb  gave 
birth  to  the  terms  'cell '  and  ' cellular  tissue/  and  to 
the  idea  long  prevalent  that  this  cell  formation  was 
itself  the  creative,  formative  and  self-productive  tissue 
that  constituted  life.  It  is  now  known  that  it  is  not 
the  body  of  the  cell,  but  its  slimy,  colorless  contents, 
the  protoplasm,  which  is  active  in  its  self-created  cell, 
and  must  be  looked  upon  as  the  carrier  of  life,  as  the 
living  part  itself."  The  term  cell  has  become  so 
imbedded  in  our  language  that  we  now  speak  of  a 
naked  cell,  meaning  thereby  the  protoplasm  when  it 
is  not  a  cell — when  it  is  devoid  of  an  envelope,  and  is 
simply  a  drop  or  minute  portion  of  shapeless,  jelly- 
like  matter,  but  which  moves  and  is  alive.  It  may 
form  a  portion  of  its  substance  into  a  denser  exterior, 

239 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

giving  rise  thus  to  an  envelope.  It  is  only  when  a 
congeries  of  these  particles  are  grouped  close  together 
that  the  appearance  of  a  cellular  structure  arises. 
The  most  striking  characteristic  of  living  protoplasm 
is  its  temporary  change  of  place,  by  a  movement 
of  the  mass  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  the  displacement, 
and  often  the  self-development,  of  its  constituent  parts. 
The  envelopes  formed  by  the  protoplasm  from  its 
own  substance  take  usually  the  form  of  tubular  or 
elongated  cells,  in  which  the  slimy  mass  of  protoplasm 
is  retained.  This  becomes  filled  with  minute  gran- 
ules or  corpuscles  that  are  in  constant  motion,. prin- 
cipally close  to  the  sides  of  the  cellules,  leaving  the 
middle  of  the  protoplasmic  mass  comparatively  free. 
In  this  latter  there  appear  large  vacant  spaces  or 
cavities,  the  u  vacuoles,"  in  which  a  watery  fluid,  the 
"sap  juice,"  collects.  The  exterior  of  the  vacuoles 
becomes  denser  by  the  thickening  of  the  protoplasm, 
and  which  gradually  form  cross  or  diagonal  bands  in 
the  interior.  Among  these  partitions  the  current  of 
protoplasm  flows,  carrying  the  corpuscles  before  de- 
scribed, mostly  in  contact  with  the  cellules  sides. 
The  motion  of  the  corpuscles  and  protoplasma  is  of  a 
twisting,  boring  character.  They  move  along  the 
sides  of  the  bands  or  cells  continually — down  one 
side,  around  and  up  the  other.  The  particles  move 
more  rapidly  the  smaller  they  are,  the  larger  ones 

240 


CHLOROPHYLL   CORPUSCLES 

at  times  coming  to  rest.  This  motion  originates  in 
the  protoplasm  itself — in  the  gelatinous,  colorless  and 
transparent  lining  or  contiguous  substance  next  to 
the  denser  and  inactive  cell  envelope,  between  whose 
own  substance  and  it  no  sharp  dividing  line  exists, 
and  which  carries  on  in  its  flow  the  corpuscles  as  a 
running  stream  does  the  small  pebbles  and  floating 
matter  in  its  course. 

Among  these  bodies  the  comparatively  large  chlo- 
rophyll corpuscles  are  seen.  In  view  of  the  impor- 
tant functions  they  fulfil,  their  structure  is  surpris- 
ingly simple.  So  far  as  we  can  perceive,  they  differ 
but  slightly  from  the  mass  of  the  protoplasm  that  sur- 
rounds them.  Consisting  externally  of  the  usual  dense 
plasmodium,  their  interior  is  formed  of  a  porous  net- 
work of  interlaced  tissues,  somewhat  resembling  those 
of  a  sponge.  The  cavities  of  this  colorless,  spongy 
texture  contain  a  green  coloring  matter  dissolved  in 
an  oily  medium  that  lines  the  wall  coverings  of  the 
almost  infinitely  small  spaces.  The  green  coloring 
matter  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  in 
chloroform,  but  is  precipitated  from  the  alcoholic 
solution  in  brown  flocculi  by  the  addition  of  water. 
When  in  solution,  it  is  bright  green  by  transmitted 
light,  but  appears  blood -red  by  reflected  light,  and 
shows  strong  fluorescence.  If  a  fatty  oil  is  agitated 
with  the  alcoholic  solution,  the  green  color  is  taken 
16  241 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

up  entirely  by  the  oil,  the  alcohol  retaining  a  yellow 
substance — Xanthophyll — dissolved.  This  is  thought, 
however,  by  some  to  be  a  product  of  decomposition 
of  the  chlorophyll.  It  is  the  cause  of  the  yellow 
coloring  of  the  foliage  in  the  autumn.  The  green 
substance  contains,  in  combination,  beside  the  hydro- 
carbons, about  two  per  cent,  of  earthy  and  alkaline 
salts.*  Iron  is  also  essential.  If  it  is  absent  in  the 
nourishing  fluids,  the  leaves  are  colorless,  becoming 
green  only  when  it  is  supplied.  (Pierer's  K.  L.,  1889.) 
The  green  substance  constitutes  only  a  small  portion 
in  weight  of  the  corpuscles.  After  extraction  by 
alcohol  the  corpuscle  is  colorless,  but  not  appreciably 
diminished  in  size. 

The  presence  of  warmth,  and  especially  of  sun- 
light, is  requisite  for  the  production  and  the  func- 
tional life  of  the  Chloropyhll  bodies.  They  first 
appear  as  colorless  or  yellowish  granules  in  the 
young  newly-formed  cells  embodied  in  the  plasmo- 
dium,  becoming  rapidly  green  in  the  light  of  day. 
A  temperature  of  at  least  40  degrees  F.  is  requisite 
for  their  development.  Their  functional  activity 
increases  with  heat,  though  the  too  intense  action  of 
the  solar  rays  is  destructive.  The  green  corpuscles 
are  alive,  surrounded  with  the  protoplasm  in  which 
they  group  themselves  towards  the  exterior  surface 

*  Kerner  Von  Marilaun.    Pflanzenleben.     B.  1.     S.  345. 
242 


CHLOROPHYLL   CORPUSCLES 

of  the  stem  or  leaf.  In  many  plants  they  appear 
like  disks,  presenting  in  moderate  light  their  flat  or 
broad  sides  to  it ;  but  when  the  heat  or  light  of  the 
rays  become  excessive  they  turn  to  it  their  narrow 
edges  only.  The  number  of  the  chlorophyll  corpus- 
cles varies  in  the  plasma  of  the  cells  from  two  or 
three  to  upwards  of  many  hundreds.  In  some  of 
the  Algse  they  line  the  tubular  cells  so  closely  as  to 
appear  like  a  continuous,  unbroken  coating.  In 
other  varieties  they  form  spiral  bands;  in  others 
stellate,  discontinuous,  or  overlapping  bodies.  In 
the  leaves  of  the  higher  order  of  plants  the  upper 
layer  of  the  leaf,  the  so-called  Pallisades,  contain  five 
or  six  times  the  number  of  the  green  corpuscles  that 
the  lower  layer,  the  spongy  Parenchyma,  do.  In  the 
former  they  lie  so  closely  together  that  they  appear  to 
constitute  the  entire  substance  of  the  cell,  but  close 
examination,  shows  that  they  are  only  in  the  lining 
substance  of  the  cells,  their  interior  not  containing 
even  a  single  one,  the  plasmic  cell  sap,  or  sap  juice, 
alone  filling  the  interior. 

In  reference  to  the  modus  operandi  of  the  Chlorophyll 
corpuscles  by  which  their  wonderful  work  is  accom- 
plished, Kerner  Von  Marilaun  remarks :  "  If,  after 
describing  the  form,  arrangement  and  number  of 
these  bodies  we  should  ask  by  what  means  do  they 
accomplish  the  formation  of  organic  matter  in  the 

243 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

chambers  of  their  cells?  we  would  find  ourselves 
in  the  position  of  a  seeker  after  knowledge  who 
enters  without  an  instructed  guide  the  Laboratory  of 
a  Chemist  who  is  working  upon  the  higher  synthesis. 
He  sees  the  apparatus  arranged,  a  heap  of  materials 
provided,  and  also  finds  the  finished  educt  prepared. 
He  can  notice  whether  heat  or  cold  is  applied,  whether 
an  increased  or  diminished  pressure  is  made  use  of, 
and  if  he  is  practiced  in  such  manipulations,  can 
form  a  shrewd  conjecture  as  to  the  connection  between 
the  operations;  but  in  the  individual  details  much 
will  remain  incomprehensible  and  much  remain 
unknown.  Especially  will  his  knowledge  be  defective 
in  respect  to  the  nature  of  the  materials  used  and  of 
the  acting  forces.  Thus  it  is  when  we  watch  the 
proceedings  in  the  cell  chambers  wherein  the  chlo- 
rophyll corpuscles  manifest  their  activity.  We  see 
the  machinery  for  action,  we  know  the  salts  and  the 
gases  brought  together  for  working,  we  know  that 
the  sunbeams  will  be  the  impulsive  force,  and  we 
know  what  will  be  the  finished  products  that  the 
chlorophyll  corpuscles  will  put  into  their  cells  •,  but 
how  the  active  forces  work,  how  it  is  that  the  sun- 
beam is  able  to  force  the  ultimate  atoms  to  give  up 
their  combinations — to  transport  themselves  apart  and 
away,  and  then  soon  after  to  appear  in  quiet  and 

244 


THE  ACTION  OF  CHLOROPHYLL 

permanent  union  in  a  totally  different  order,  are  ques- 
tions that  cannot  be  solved."  * 

It  is  comparatively  easy  to  trace  the  several  steps 
of  an  analysis,  or  process  of  decomposition — to  follow 
the  original  atoms  in  their  entrance  into  new  com- 
binations that  they  may  form ;  but  the  work  effected 
by  the  chlorophyll  cells  is  far  more  difficult  to  under- 
stand. It  is  synthetical — the  formation  of  new  organic 
combinations  and  structures  differentiated  one  from 
another,  out  of  the  salts  and  gases  from  the  inorganic 
world,  through  the  influence  of  the  solar  rays.  The 
theory  of  their  action  upon  chlorophyll  is  thus 
given  :  "  These  rays,  when  separated  by  a  prism  from 
each  other,  are  found  to  differ  in  their  action.  The 
most  effective  in  their  deoxidizing  work  are  those 
towards  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum — the  red,  orange 
and  yellow,  that  are  the  least  refrangible  and  have  the 
longest  and  slowest  wave  length.  These  are  the  rays 
that  produce  the  deoxidizing  action  of  the  chlorophyll 
upon  carbon  dioxide,  whilst  the  blue,  violet  and  ultra 
violet  rays,  the  rapid,  short  wave  length  rays,  are  those 
that  are  chemically  active  and  are  oxidizing.  The 
rays  of  white  light  are  decomposed  by  the  green  chlo- 
rophyll, which  absorbs  and  changes  into  heat  the  blue 
and  violet  rays,  permitting  the  red  and  yellow  rays  to 
reach  the  plasmodium.  The  property  of  fluorescence 

*  Pflanzenleben.     B.  1.,  S.  360. 
245 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

possessed  by  chlorophyll,  which  enables  the  rapid 
short  waves  of  violet  light  to  be  changed  into  the 
longer,  slower  waves  of  red  light,  is  effective  to  the 
same  end.  When  the  Algae  are  growing  in  the  deep 
water  of  the  sea,  so  far  from  the  sands  and  rocks  of 
the  coast  that  the  sandy  or  earthy  debris  thereof  no 
longer  changes  the  pure  blue  tint  of  the  deep  into  the 
greenish  color  of  the  shallows,  the  absorption  of  the 
red  waves  of  light  by  the  blue  water  is  so  great  that 
the  chlorophyll  is  no  longer  adequate  for  the  work  re- 
quired. Not  only  are  the  red  and  orange  rays  nearly 
all  absorbed  by  the  water,  and  only  the  more  refran- 
gible rays,  the  blue  and  violet,  transmitted,  but  all 
the  light  rays  so  far  lose  their  power  that  at  a  depth 
of  about  350  feet  no  light  is  transmitted,  and  at  this 
depth  no  plants  live.  In  less  depths,  but  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  waste  from  the  rocks  and  shore,  grow 
the  Florideae,  Algae,  in  which  the  chlorophyll  is 
masked  or  replaced  in  part  by  Erythrophyll,  the 
red  matter  of  the  red-colored  seaweed.  This  sub- 
stance, both  by  its  own  color  transmitting  unchanged 
the  light  rays  that  reach  the  plant  surface  as  well  as  by 
its  strong  fluorescent  properties  that  change  the  rapid- 
ity and  length  of  the  waves  of  light,  compensates  to  a 
large  extent  for  the  deficiency  of  the  desired  red  rays, 
and  facilitates  the  decomposition  of  carbon  dioxide 
and  formation  of  the  plant  tissues.  On  the  other 
246 


THE  ACTION  OF  CHLOROPHYLL 

hand,  an  excess  of  light  may  be  injurious.  Those 
plants  that  grow  on  the  shores  and  sandbanks  are 
exposed  to  an  intense  glare  of  light,  too  destructive 
of  chlorophyll  to  be  borne  by  the  plant  with  safety. 
In  these  plants  the  surface  is  either  provided  with 
a  rough,  woolly,  hair-like  covering,  or  is  of  a  dull, 
scaly  character  that  shields  the  green  corpuscles  from 
the  superabundance  of  the  solar  energy. 

Most  plants  also  that  grow  in  very  strong  light 
have  their  leaves  vertically  arranged,  so  that  the 
beams  fall  in  lines  parallel  to  the  surface,  while 
those  that  thrive  best  in  the  shade  expose  their  sur- 
face horizontally,  the  direct  rays,  or  diffused  light  of 
the  sky,  reaching  them  in  lines  at  right  angles  to  the 
leaf,  and  therefore  most  effectively.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  the  active  energy  influencing  the  functions  of  the 
chlorophyll  corpuscles  is  the  all-pervading  Ether  that 
transmits  to  the  budding  leaf  the  vibrations  of  light 
and  heat  from  the  far  distant  Sun.  In  the  absence 
of  light  and  heat,  the  plant  would  be  but  little  better 
than  dead  tissues. 

The  first  step  in  the  life  action  of  chlorophyll  ap- 
pears to  be  the  decomposition  of  water  and  of  carbon 
dioxide ;  the  elimination  of  oxygen  and  the  synthesis 
of  carbo-hydrates  in  the  shape  of  some  form  of  dis- 
solved sugar  or  one  of  its  many  nearly  isomeric  rela- 
tives. Next  follows  the  decomposition  of  alkaline  or 
247 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

earthy  nitrates,  and  of  ammonium  salts,  which,  with 
soluble  sulphates  and  phosphates,  are  supplied  by  the 
sap  juice  to  the  protoplasm  in  which  the  corpuscles 
are  imbedded,  of  which  protoplasm  the  cell  exteriors 
are  constituted,  and  with  which  they  are  filled.  From 
these  inorganic  molecules  are  derived  the  Sulphur, 
Phosphorus  and  other  elements  that  are  built  up  by 
the  protoplasm  into  the  albumen  of  which  it  is  itself 
composed,  and  which  grows  thus  by  its  own  accre- 
tions. The  formation  of  the  higher  organized  mo- 
lecules, in  their  respective  order,  Dextrine,  Starch 
and  Cellulose,  or  woody  tissues,  then  follow,  to  be 
arranged  in  common  with  innumerable  other  mo- 
lecular groupings  of  the  elementary  atoms  according 
to  the  plan  of  organization  of  each  variety  of  plant.* 
In  all  the  above  syntheses,  or  the  formation  of 
the  higher  complex  combinations  of  molecules  peculiar 
to  the  manifestation  of  life,  from  the  simpler,  inor- 
ganic molecules  of  the  mineral  or  aerial  world,  de- 
void of  life,  the  immediate  presence  of  light  and 
warmth,  the  educts  of  the  Ether,  are  absolutely 
essential. 


*  Ibid.,  ft  seq. 
248 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  TRANSFERENCE  OF  ENERGY  FROM  LOWER  TO 
HIGHER  ORGANIZATION — REPRODUCTION  IN  THE 
ALG^E — AGAMIC  AND  SEXUAL. 

ANOTHER  series  of  the  phenomena  involving  the 
growth  and  development  of  the  plant,  and  above  all 
its  reproduction  by  flowers  and  fruit,  wherein  the 
light  of  day  is  unnecessary  if  not  injurious,  is  now  to 
be  considered.  In  discussing  the  phenomena  of  com- 
bustion it  was  shown  that  when  many  substances, 
elementary  or  molecular,  containing  carbon  or  hydro- 
gen, united  with  oxygen,  a  certain  elevation  of  tem- 
perature or  external  heat  was  required  to  induce  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  to  unite  with  the  substance 
in  question,  but  that  when  the  union  of  oxygen 
therewith,  or  combustion,  had  begun,  the  chemical 
energy  evolved  was  not  only  sufficient  to  maintain 
the  temperature  necessary  for  combustion,  but  a  vast 
amount  of  surplus  energy  was  developed,  and  passed 
away  into  the  air  or  ether  as  heat  of  high  intensity. 
This  energy  could  be  applied  to  many  purposes,  or, 

249 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

by  appropriate  means,  made  to  assume  many  forms, 
such  as  physical  motion  or  the  generation  of  electricity, 
etc. ;  but  whatever  form  it  might  assume,  its  origin  was 
the  same.  The  carbon  and  hydrogen,  dissociated 
from  their  earlier  combinations  by  the  solar  energy 
transmitted  through  the  Ether,  had  been  stored  up 
as  cellulose  in  the  living  plant,  and  afterwards,  when 
excluded  from  atmospheric  oxygen,  remained  as 
woody  tissue  or  was  changed  into  mineral  coal.  Heat 
thus  became  the  form  of  energy  in  which  the  dead 
tissues  of  the  once  living  plant  were  now  available. 
It  was  different  when  the  plant  was  living.  An 
example  of  its  mode  of  action  then,  may  be  taken 
from  a  contrivance  in  mechanics. 

It  often  happens  that  it  is  desirable  to  raise  to  the 
top  of  a  hill  a  part  of  the  water  that  in  a  brook  runs 
to  waste  at  the  foot  thereof.  This  is  conveniently 
done  by  causing  a  portion  of  the  water  to  flow  in  a 
large  tube  for  some  distance  down  the  declivity  of  the 
brook,  the  water  escaping  through  a  valve  at  the  end. 
Just  above  this  valve  is  another  valve  opening  into 
a  closed  air  chamber,  to  which  is  attached  a  small 
tube  leading  to  the  top  of  the  hill.  In  operation  the 
water  flows  down  through  the  large  tube  and  valve 
until  the  friction  caused  by  its  rapid  flow  raises  and 
suddenly  closes  the  exit  valve.  The  momentum  of 
the  column  of  water,  being  instantaneously  checked, 

250 


TRANSFERENCE    OF  ENERGY 

expends  its  force  by  driving  a  portion  of  the  water 
through  the  other  valve  and  small  tube  to  the  hill- 
top, until — the  water  ceasing  to  flow  in  the  main  tube 
— the  large  valve  again  falls  open  by  gravity ;  the 
flow  recommences  through  it,  when  its  full  velocity 
again  closes  the  main  valve  and  so  "  da  capo."  By 
this  arrangement,  which  is  known  as  the  hydraulic 
ram,  a  small  but  nearly  constant  and  adequate  sup- 
ply of  water  is  carried  up  to  a  reservoir  many  feet 
above  its  source  in  the  bed  of  the  brook. 

In  the  living  plant  and  in  animals  a  transfer  of 
the  surplus  energy  occurs  in  some  respects  analogous 
to  the  action  of  the  flowing  water  in  the  apparatus 
described.  In  the  plant  life,  as  well  as  in  that  of 
animals,  the  energy  that  is  not  available  immediately 
or  required  for  its  momentary  functions  is  stored  up 
in  the  vessels  until  wanted,  often  in  the  shape  of 
starch  or  fat.  Partly  even  in  daylight,  but  especially 
at  night,  when  the  chlorophyll  molecules  are  no 
longer  acting,  processes  of  tissue  formation  are  at 
work.  These  processes  are  essentially  oxidizing:  a 
portion  of  the  hydrocarbons  formed  during  the  day 
unite  with  oxygen,  and  form  again  carbon  dioxide 
and  water,  thus  reversing  the  prior  action  of  the 
chlorophyll  corpuscles.  This  degradation,  or  falling 
down  from  the  higher  levels  of  chemical  or  organic 
construction  to  the  lower  level  of  inorganic  affinities, 

251 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

would,  if  the  plant  were  dead,  be  only  attended 
with  the  development  of  heat  In  the  living  plant 
it  takes  another  course.  As  in  the  example  given 
of  the  Hydraulic  Ram,  the  vis  viva  of  the  moving 
water  falling  to  a  lower  level  imparts  its  active 
energy  to  raising  a  smaller  part  to  a  higher  level,  so 
the  energy  liberated  by  the  products  of  oxidation  in 
the  living  plant  or  animal  raises  another,  though 
smaller,  portion  of  the  plasmodium  or  its  structural 
forms  to  the  higher  level  of  more  complex  organiz- 
ation— forms  the  new  cells  and  tissues  of  the  growing 
plant,  evolves  in  the  lower  forms  of  plant  life  such 
as  the  agamic  alga3  their  reproductive  spores,  and 
in  the  higher  developed  Phanerogama,  the  intricate 
and  beautiful  structures  of  the  sexual  modes  of 
reproduction,  their  flowers,  fruit  and  seeds. 

This  oxidizing  and  constructive  process  only,  is  that 
which  constitutes  the  life  of  the  Fungi  and  of  all 
those  plants  that  are  either  parasitic  or  that  live  upon 
dead  matter.  Being  without  chlorophyll,  they  can 
obtain  their  sustenance  only  from  food  prepared  by 
other  lives.  They  can  live,  as  all  animals  do,  only 
from  already  organized  matter,  and,  like  animals, 
their  food,  when  assimilated,  builds  up  new  tissue 
and  new  organisms  by  aid  of  the  surplus  energy  set 
free  in  the  oxidation  and  degradation  of  the  molec- 
ular combinations  that  are  effete  and  dead. 

252 


TRANSFERENCE    OF  ENERGY 

With  animals,  however,  this  surplus  energy  mani- 
fests itself  also  in  part  as  muscular  force  and  action  ; 
another  part  in  animal  heat,  which  is  always  present 
even  in  cold-blooded  animals,  though  in  a  lesser 
degree  than  in  the  warm-blooded.  The  total  heat 
produced  by  the  combustion  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
etc.,  in  the  act  of  respiration  is  exactly  the  same  as 
if  the  said  substances  were  burned  in  the  air  by 
ordinary  combustion.  The  heat,  being  slowly  evolved, 
is,  of  course,  far  lower  in  intensity,  though  the 
quantity  is  the  same.  In  animals,  as  in  plants,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind,  the  phenomena  of  life  are 
the  exponents  of  the  energy  conveyed  by  the  Ether, 
primarily  to  the  plant,  and  through  it  to  the  animal. 
In  addition,  animal  life  is  directly  dependent  upon 
solar  light,  heat,  and  the  many  influences  therewith 
combined,  that  affect  health  and  the  exercise  of  its 
faculties. 

The  flowering  of  plants  is  entirely  an  oxidizing 
process  in  which  chlorophyll  has  little  or  no  part  or 
action.  No  true  flower — that  is  to  say,  no  portion 
thereof  that  involves  the  functions  of  reproduction — is 
ever  colored  green.  The  peculiar  properties  of  chlo- 
rophyll are  those  directly  opposed  to  the  changes 
required  in  the  plasmodium  out  of  which  the  constit- 
uent parts  of  the  flower,  and  later  on  those  of  the 
seed  vessel  and  its  seeds,  are  to  arise, 

253 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

The  mode  of  reproduction  of  Bacteria  by  division 
of  the  cellules  with  or  without  the  formation  of 
nuclei  or  spores  has  already  been  described.  Among 
the  next  higher  order,  the  lower  Algae,  reproduction 
is  often,  even  in  the  same  individual,  both  asexual 
and  sexual.  In  the  tube-shaped  Vaucheria  Clavata 
the  non-sexual  process,  viewed  under  the  microscope, 
is  curious  and  interesting.  The  tube-like  structure 
of  the  plant  terminates  with  rounded  ends;  close 
thereto  a  cellule  several  times  longer  than  its 
diameter  is  formed.  The  chlorophyll  granules  form 
in  the  plasmodium  contents,  and  partly  fill  the  cell. 
A  few  hours  later  the  cell  bursts  through  the  end  of 
the  tube.  It  now  forms  an  ovoid  body,  dark  green 
at  one  end  and  nearly  colorless  at  the  other.  It 
parts  from  the  parent  plant  and  swims  away  in  the 
surrounding  water,  apparently  seeking  a  suitable 
place  for  lodgment,  avoiding  floating  matter  or  other 
obstacles  in  its  path.  It  stops  at  times,  apparently 
to  rest ;  resumes  its  course  soon  again.  Its  motion 
forward  is  at  the  rate  of  about  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  in  a  minute,  though  seemingly  rapid  under  a 
miscroscope,  crossing  the  field  of  vision  in  less  than  a 
second  ;  it  revolves  on  its  longer  axis  and  progresses, 
therefore,  with  a  spiral,  screw-like  motion.  This  is 
produced  by  the  ciliated  or  eyelash-like  extensions, 
that  issue  from  its  gelatinous  substance  in  all  direc- 
354 


THE  BIRTH  OF 


tions,  and  by  their  incessant,  alternate  bending  and 
straightening  propel  the  globule  forward.  This 
motion  continues  for  about  two  hours,  when  the 
periods  for  resting  become  more  frequent  and 
longer.  The  cellule,  finding  a  suitable  place,  now 
finally  comes  to  rest,  preferably  on  the  shady  side  of 
some  fixed  or  large  floating  body  ;  the  cilia  disappear 
or  are  withdrawn.  The  globule,  until  now  a  mass 
of  naked  plasmodium,  hardens  or  thickens  exteriorly, 
so  as  to  form  an  envelope  —  a  firm,  transparent,  color- 
less skin  —  the  globule  becoming  uniformly  green. 
After  twenty  -six  hours  a  number  of  short,  branching 
tubes  arise  from  the  cell  thus  formed.  These  tubes 
increase  in  size  and  length  as  the  parent  cell  did, 
until  in  fourteen  days  their  ends  burst,  and  give  birth 
to  new  cellules,  that  run  again  the  life  course  thus 
described. 

Other  Algae,  whether  multiplying  sexually  or  asex- 
ually,  produce  similar  plasmodic  globules,  which, 
either  before  or  after  their  separation  from  the  parent, 
burst  and  set  free  a  swarm  of  minute  ciliated 
protoplasma  that  move  their  pear-shaped  bodies  by 
means  of  their  thread  or  whip-like  cilia,  two  or  more 
in  number,  in  the  manner  above  described.  These 
swim  alone,  at  times  avoiding  one  another,  or,  if  they 
come  in  contact  by  their  forward  ends,  remain  an 
instant  so,  then  back  away  from  each  other  and  con- 

255 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tinne  on  their  course.  Others  seek  each  other, 
remain  side  by  side,  and  their  gelatinous  bodies  melt 
into  each  other — their  increased  size  and  duplication 
of  the  number  of  their  tentacular  cilia  alone  indicat- 
ing their  former  separate  existence.  Those  that  avoid 
each  other  have  escaped  from  the  same  enveloping  cell. 
Those  that  seek  each  other  and  blend  into  each  other 
are  from  the  chamber  cells  of  different  individuals. 
This  is  the  procedure  with  the  Ulothrix  ("  Curly  hair," 
a  fresh  water  Alpine  Alga),  and  is  the  simplest  con- 
ceivable form  of  fertilization  among  plants.  In  other 
Alga3  (the  Spirogyra,  for  instance),  when  the  cells  of 
different  filaments  are  nearly  in  contact,  they  pro- 
trude their  respective  walls  towards  each  other.  The 
latter,  which  in  these  organisms  are  always  soft  and 
plastic,  dissolve  when  the  protrusions  meet.  The  plas- 
modium  in  the  opposite  cells — in  each  now  gathered 
into  globules — pass  from  one  into  the  other,  and, 
uniting,  form  a  single  globule.  This  now  fills  with 
granules,  and  when  ripe  escapes  through  the  side  of 
the  cell.  Ultimately  this  globule  bursts,  liberating 
its  contents;  each  granule,  after  its  migratory  exist- 
ence, as  before  described,  starts  a  new  life,  and  by 
subdivision  of  its  cell  walls  grows  and  forms  a  new 
plant  like  its  parent.  No  difference  can  be  observed 
in  the  appearance  of  the  plasmodic  globules  before 
their  junction,  though  without  doubt  a  difference  in 

256 


BIRTH  OF  ALG&  AND  FERNS 

composition  does  exist  corresponding  to  their  sexual 
distinctions. 

The  mode  of  reproduction  of  the  higher  fungi  has 
already  been  described.  That  of  many  Cryptogama, 
the  mosses,  ferns  and  others  are  both  sexual,  and  asex- 
ual, and  often  show  a  curious  condition  of  alternate 
generation.  The  female  cells  or  oospores  germinate, 
and  produce  an  embryo  plant,  which  in  the  Ferns  is 
a  simple  mass  of  cellular  tissue.  Its  cells  divide,  a 
root  is  formed  that  descends,  and  a  stem  that  ascends 
and  bears  leaves.  On  the  under  side  of  these,  spores 
are  formed ;  when  ripe  they  escape,  and,  taking  root, 
a  new  plant  grows.  After  a  time  the  sexual  gene- 
ration occurs,  consisting  in  the  production  on  the 
under  part  of  the  leaf  of  spores  that  develop  into 
the  antheridia  and  others  into  the  archegonia,  corre- 
sponding to  the  male  and  female  fertilizing  organs  of 
the  anthers  and  pistils  of  the  plant-bearing  flowers, 
or  the  phanerogama.  These  give  birth  to  the  oospores 
before  mentioned,  and  the  cycle  begins  again. 
17  257 


CHAPTER  XXI 

PHANEROGAMA,  OR  FLOWERING  PLANTS  —  CON- 
STRUCTION OF  FERTILIZING  ORGANS — SEEDS — 
GERMINATION — CUTTINGS. 

THE  higher  order  of  plants,  the  Phanerogama, 
include  all  the  plants  that  bear  flowers,  and  therefore 
include  all  grasses,  herbs,  shrubs,  bushes  and  trees, 
and  such  water  plants  that,  although  living  in  the 
water,  bear  flowers  that  bloom  only  in  the  air.  The 
plants,  without  exception,  contain  chlorophyll,  though 
but  a  small  and  unimportant  part  of  the  flowers  them- 
selves contain  it.  The  florescence  of  the  plant  con- 
sists in  the  growth  and  development  of  the  organs 
that  are  essential  to  the  formation  of  the  fruit,  or  seeds, 
in  which  lie  the  potency  of  the  continuance  of  a  new 
plant  life. 

Although  the  variety  is  almost  infinite  in  the  ap- 
pearance and  detail  of  construction  of  the  tens  of 
thousands  of  different  flowers  that  exist,  yet  they  all 
contain  the  same  essential  features.  All  have  the 
same  functions  to  perform.  We  can  readily  recognize 

258 


FERTILIZATION  OF  FLOWERS 

on  examination  the  mechanism  by  which  it  is  to  be 
accomplished,  however  varied  in  form  and  color  it 
may  be  made,  or  however  obscured  by  apparently 
needless  replication  of  some  parts  or  obliteration  of 
others. 

It  is  not  at  first  sight  very  obvious  why,  in  the 
economy  of  nature,  it  should  be  necessary,  or  rather 
that  it  should  be  so  very  often  the  case,  that  two  sep- 
arate individual  plant  lives  should  take  part  in  the 
production  of  the  fruits  or  seeds  from  which  spring 
the  existence  of  a  new  plant  of  the  higher  orders. 
As  we  have  seen,  the  lower  plants,  the  bacteria,  the 
lower  fungi  and  algse,  are  non-sexual ;  yet  even  among 
the  higher  order  of  the  Cryptograma  sexual  repro- 
duction becomes  more  general  as  their  evolution  ad- 
vances In  the  Phanerogama  it  is  universal.  It  is 
true  that  in  many  flowers  both  the  Stamen  (male) 
and  the  Pistil  (female)  are  present,  the  flowers  being 
hermaphrodite ;  but  in  almost  every  instance  the 
pistil  is  so  conditioned  or  placed  that  the  pollen  from 
the  stamens  of  the  same  flower  cannot  reach  it,  and 
fertilization  can  only  occur  by  the  pollen  coming  from 
a  distant  flower.  The  reason  probably  is  that  the 
florescence  of  a  plant  is  exhausting  to  its  vitality, 
possibly  from  the  excessive  consumption  of  certain 
constituent  molecules,  sometimes  in  one  direction, 
sometimes  in  another.  The  joint  lives  of  two  organ 

259 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

isms  may  better  supply  the  elements  or  conditions 
needed  for  the  fertilized  ovule  that  otherwise  might 
be  deficient  if  one  plant  only  furnished  all.  The 
varying  conditions  of  soil  and  exposure  to  light  and 
moisture  must  also  cause  variations  in  structure  in 
each  plant,  and  give  rise  to  such  slight  differences  in 
constitution  as  to  be  favorable  to  greater  perfection  in 
the  pollen  and  induce  such  changes  as  to  lead  to  the 
higher  evolution  of  its  structure  and  functions.  Be 
the  cause  what  it  may,  and  the  principles  of  evolution 
best  account  for  it,  the  fact  is  certain  that  the  most 
intricate  devices  exist  in  innumerable  instances  by 
which  the  pollen  immediately  adjacent  is  excluded, 
and  fertilization  made  possible  only  by  the  pollen 
being  brought  from  other  flowers  by  the  wind,  or 
very  frequently  by  insects  or  birds,  who  seek  the 
flowers  that  are  far  apart  for  the  honey  or  other 
food  secreted  respectively  for  their  attraction. 

All  flowers  consist  essentially  of  three  distinct 
parts,  all  of  which  arise  from  modifications  of  the 
ordinary  leaf  of  the  plant.  They  are,  first,  the 
outer  protecting  envelopes,  consisting  of  the  calyx  or 
lower  cup-like  leaves  or  sepals  (often  greenish  and  ad- 
joining the  stem),  and  the  corolla  or  petals.  The  latter 
are  usually  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  the  flower, 
being  often  brilliantly  colored  and  their  texture 
exquisitely  soft  and  delicate.  The  sepals  and  petals 

260 


FERTILIZATION  OF  FLOWERS 

are  generally  five  in  number,  although  often  there  are 
more,  and  sometimes  fewer.  Their  office  is  to  close 
around  and  protect  from  sun,  rain  or  other  injury  the 
inner  and  essential  organs  within  their  enclosure  until 
they  are  fully  ripe,  and  by  their  color  and  odor 
attract  birds  and  insects  from  afar,  by  whose  assist- 
ance the  work  of  fertilization  can  often  only  be 
accomplished.  Second.  Within,  next  to  the  petals, 
are  the  stamens,  bearing  on  or  near  their  summits 
the  Anthers,  or  male  pollen-producing  organs. 
They  vary  in  number  from  one  to  several  hundreds. 
When  by  cultivation  the  petals  are  rendered  double, 
it  is  by  some  of  the  stamens  becoming  degenerated 
into  petals.  The  Anthers  are  formed  of  two  small 
lobes,  or  pod-like  vessels,  that  open,  when  ripe,  and 
discharge  the  pollen,  a  fine,  powder-like  substance, 
though  often  rendered  cohesive  in  certain  plants  by  a 
sticky,  viscid  fluid,  which  prevents  its  dissipation  by 
the  wind.  Third.  Within  the  circle  of  stamens,  and 
occupying  the  centre  of  the  flower,  are  placed  the 
Pistil  or  Pistils,  part  of  the  female  or  ovule-bearing 
organs  of  the  flower,  which,  after  the  flowers  fades,  are 
changed  or  grow,  forming  the  fruit  or  seeds.  It  or 
they  consist  of  one  or  more  tubular  structures  or  Car- 
pels that  arise  from  the  centre  and  the  end  of  the 
flower-bearing  stem.  If  multiple,  they  may  unite  at 
the  base  into  one  receptacle  or  ovary,  or  each  may  have 

261 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

its  own,  and  remain  distinct  throughout.  Between  the 
ovary  and  the  summit  extends  the  Style,  a  tube  con- 
necting the  ovary  with  the  Stigma.  These  latter  vary 
in  form,  dependent  upon  whether  the  pollen  is  to  be 
brought  by  the  wind  as  fine  dust,  or  whether  it  is  to 
be  transported  by  insects,  or  some  similar  means,  in  the 
shape  of  sticky  lumps  of  coherent  granules — in  the 
one  case  forming  flat,  button-formed  nodules,  in  other 
cases  it  arises  above  the  stamens  and  terminates  in  a 
rod-like  extension,  which  may  be  straight,  bent,  or 
contorted,  on  the  surface  of  which  a  moist  area  is 
exposed,  upon  which  the  pollen  falls  and  adheres. 
Various  and  complex  devices  exist  by  which  the 
stigma  may  remove  from  an  insect  or  bird  the  pollen 
with  which  it  may  be  loaded,  and  which  it  had 
gathered  from  the  anthers  when  seeking  honey  or 
other  food  in  the  same  or  in  a  different  flower.  The 
stigma  connects  through  the  style  with  the  Ovary, 
in  which,  attached  to  a  prolongation  of  the  style — 
the  Placenta — the  ovula  are  formed.  The  ovary  is 
usually  spherical,  and  if  there  is  more  than  one 
carpel  the  grooves  on  the  outside  coincide  with  the 
junctions  thereof.  After  the  contact  of  the  pollen 
with  the  stigma,  the  ovula  grow  larger  and  finally 
mature  into  seeds ;  the  ovary  discharges  them  when 
fully  ripe  by  opening  or  bursting  its  enveloping 
coats. 

262 


FERTILIZATION  OF  FLOWERS 

The  pollen  or  life-giving  principle  and  its  action 
are  thus  described:  "The  pollen  cells  are  differen- 
tiated into  an  outer  cuticular  layer  or  Extine,  and 
an  inner  layer  or  Intine.  The  former  is  a  firm  mem- 
brane, sometimes  smooth,  sometimes  covered  with 
minute  hairs,  points  or  projections.  It  is  generally 
yellow,  and  often  covered  with  an  oily  or  viscid 
secretion.  The  intine  is  thin,  transparent  and  pos- 
sesses great  power  of  extension.  The  pollen  grains 
vary  from  355  to  ^  of  an  inch  in  diameter ;  they  are 
usually  ellipsoidal,  but  sometimes  spherical,  cylindrical 
and  even  triangular  and  polyhedral. 

Within  the  pollen  grains  is  a  granular  semifluid 
protoplasmic  matter,  the  Fovilla,  together  with  some 
oily  particles,  and  at  times  starch.  The  Fovilla  con- 
tains small  spherical  granules  about  3^  of  an  inch 
in  diameter,  and  a  few  larger,  elongated  corpuscles 
which  exhibit  molecular  movements.  Moisture  has 
a  marked  effect,  causing  the  pollen  grains  to  swell  up 
by  endosmose.  If  long  continued,  the  extine  becomes 
so  distended  as  to  split,  or  open  in  places.  The 
intine  is  more  distensible  and  is  often  forced  through 
the  pores  or  the  ruptures  of  the  extine  in  sac-like 
protrusions.  Ultimately  the  inner  membrane  gives 
way  and  the  fovilla  escapes,  often  in  tube-like  pro- 
cesses. To  guard  against  injury  from  the  premature 
admission  of  water  to  the  pollen  cells,  the  stamens 
263 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

are  protected  by  the  inner  petals  of  the  Corolla.  In 
wet  weather  or  at  nightfall  one  or  more  of  them 
close  firmly  around  the  stamens,  if  the  anthers  are 
nearly  ripe.  In  the  same  manner  they  protect  the 
stigma  until  ready  for  its  functions.  The  bell-shaped 
flowers  then  bend  down  more  deeply,  so  as  to  offer 
their  narrow  base  to  the  storm,  and  thus  shelter  their 
contents  from  the  rain.  The  pollen  must  finally  be 
brought  in  juxtaposition  with  the  stigma ;  when  the 
moist  surface  thereof  causes  the  rupture  of  the 
pollen  cell ;  or  the  contents  thereof,  the  fovilla,  escape 
wrapped  in  the  long,  minute  tubular  protrusions  of 
the  intine,  thus  affecting  the  union  of  the  two  plas- 
modia,  the  fovilla  being  transmitted  through  the 
plasma  of  the  style  and  by  the  enclosed  Placenta  to 
the  ovula,  which  slowly  grow  and  ripen."  * 

After  fertilization  the  anthers  and  stigma  wither 
and  decay;  the  petals  fall  and  the  calyx,  if  remaining, 
changes  its  form ;  the  fruit,  as  the  entire  maturing 
ovary  is  now  called,  varies  much,  as  is  well  known, 
in  its  nature.  In  such  fruits  as  the  apple,  goose- 
berry, etc.,  it  consists  of  a  development  of  the  Calyx 
and  Ovary  only.  In  that  of  the  Hazel  and  the  Oak 
it  consists  of  the  ovary,  calyx  and  the  Bracts  (or  the 
leaves  partly  developed  into  the  calyx,  below  the 
latter).  The  pulpy  matter  in  apples,  pears  and  similar 

*  J.  H.  Balfour,  Ency.  Brit,  187T, 
264 


THE   FORMATION  OF  SEEDS 

edible  fruits  is  one  modification  of  the  Pericarp,  and 
is  formed  usually  from  the  placenta,  and  serves  prox- 
imately  for  the  dissemination  of  the  seeds,  being  eaten 
by  animals,  through  whose  digestive  organs  the  seeds 
pass  unchanged.  Jn  other  fruits  the  pericarp  is  hard, 
ligneous  and  not  digestible,  and  serves  only  as  an 
additional  protection  to  the  enclosed  seed  or  seeds 
until  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  germination. 
Their  dissemination  is  provided  for  in  many  ways  with 
which  we  are  all  familiar.  In  all  seeds  the  active, 
living  germ  constitutes  but  a  very  small  portion 
thereof.  The  embryo,  or  germ,  is  only  a  nodule,  at 
or  near  one  end  of  the  seed.  It  is  protected  by  its 
tough  outer  covering  from  the  wet,  and  is  capable 
of  withstanding  with  impunity  an  excessive  degree  of 
cold.  If  kept  dry,  seeds  retain  the  potency  of  life 
for  many  years. 

The  principal  part  of  the  seed  consists  of  an  amy- 
laceous mass  of  granules  of  starch,  albumen  and  oily 
substances,  which  serve  as  food  to  the  young  plant, 
and  are  consumed  by  it  when  it  germinates  and 
begins  to  grow.  The  processes  of  floration  and  of 
fructification  are  very  exhausting  to  the  parent  plant. 
The  formation  of  a  flower  and  the  growth  of  the  seed 
require  a  large  expenditure  of  material  and  of  vital 
energy  that  are  furnished  by  the  oxidation  or  degra- 
dation of  the  parent  tissues  and  of  the  stored-up  oil, 
265 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

starch  and  organic  matter  prepared  during  the  day- 
light, but  partly  consumed  then,  as  well  as  at  night. 
It  is  well  known,  moreover,  that  all  grasses  lose  most 
of  their  nutritive  properties  after  the  formation  of 
seed  is  completed. 

When  the  young  plant  begins  its  independent  life, 
or  germinates,  it  requires  at  first  no  extraneous  food, 
nor  does  it  require  sunlight.  It  contains  within 
itself  all  that  is  needed  excepting  the  energy  furnished 
by  moderate  warmth,  and  the  addition  of  a  little  mois- 
ture. With  these  supplied  the  seed  protrudes  a  portion 
of  its  substance  through  an  opening,  or  openings,  in  the 
outer  coat;  this  thread  or  stem-like  growth  divides, 
one  part  striving  up  to  the  light  and  air,  the  other 
seeking  the  ground,  if  below  it. 

If  at  this  time,  before  more  changes  occur,  the  seed 
be  chemically  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  with  the 
first  appearance  of  a  sprout  the  contents  of  the  seed 
have  swollen,  the  starch  has  become  sweet,  and  in  a 
little  time  will  change  entirely  into  sugar,  which  again 
will  disappear  as  the  sprout  increases,  until  roots 
and  the  rudimentary  form  of  leaves  appear.  If 
now,  the  whole  plant  be  removed  and  weighed, 
it  will  be  found  that,  notwithstanding  its  increased 
bulk  by  moisture  absorbed,  it  will  weigh  less  than  it 
did  before  it  began  to  grow,  the  growth  being  not 
by  the  absorption  of  matter  from  without,  but  by  the 

266 


GERMINATION  OF  SEEDS 

change  within  the  seed — the  nutritive  matter  therein, 
the  starch,  oil,  gluten,  dextrine,  etc.,  passing  first  by 
conversion  partly  into  sugar,  and  then  into  the  plasma 
and  the  succulent  vessels  ot  the  new  growth,  furnish 
by  their  oxidation,  or  running  down  the  scale  of 
molecular  combination,  the  needed  energy.  This 
now  finds  expression  partly  in  heat,  but  mainly  in 
forming  the  new  plasmodium,  building  up  new  cells, 
new  corpuscles,  new  tissues  and  new  leaves,  until  the 
original  nutriment  within  the  seed  shell  is  exhausted, 
and  the  infant  life,  now  strong  in  its  own  radicles  and 
leaves,  can  independently  enter  the  field  of  the  inor- 
ganic world,  and,  provided  with  chlorophyll,  struggle 
for  its  own  existence. 

Many  plants,  after  shedding  their  seeds,  at  once 
wither  and  die.  The  continuance  of  their  species 
is  provided  for  sufficiently  by  the  future  growth  from 
the  seeds,  and  depends  absolutely  upon  the  new  life 
only  that  is  to  issue  therefrom.  But  should  the  de- 
velopment of  the  flower  or  seed  be  prevented  by 
transferring  the  plant  from  its  native  climate  to  one 
so  much  colder  that  the  flower  and  seeds  have  not 
time  to  receive  the  needed  heat  to  ripen,  or  if  the 
flowers  as  they  begin  to  form  are  nipped  off;  the 
plant  does  not  die,  but  forms  on  or  near  the  root  bud- 
like  swellings,  which  develop  into  scions  or  layers 
(often  called  suckers),  which  preserve  the  life,  and  in 

267 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

the  next  or  recurring  Spring  burst  into  leaf.  In  this 
way  many  of  the  annuals  have  been  transformed  into 
perennials. 

With  the  majority  of  plants  that  are  not  strictly 
annuals  the  propagation  of  the  plant  life  is  by 
means  of  the  scions  or  layers  above  mentioned,  or 
cuttings,  as  the  gardener  calls  them.  If  a  leaf-bear- 
ing twig  is  cut  off  and  embedded  in  earth,  or,  still 
better,  grafted  upon  a  stem  of  an  older  but  vigorous 
plant  of  the  same  species,  so  that  obliquely  cut  sur- 
faces are  held  firmly  in  contact,  the  life  continues. 
If  in  the  earth,  the  leaf  buds  are  transformed  into 
rootlets  which  absorb  nutrition  from  the  soil,  other 
buds  throw  out  stems  that  strive  upwards  and  soon 
form  leaves,  and  a  perfect  plant  is  born.  The  grafted 
stem  undergoes  less  change;  the  cellules  of  the  fresh 
cut  surfaces  being  in  contact,  the  plasmodium  of  the 
older  plant  cell  is  transferred  to  those  of  the  younger 
cutting,  and  the  sap  juice  circulates  through  its  ves- 
sels ;  the  leaves  of  the  cutting,  containing  chlorophyll 
cells,  secrete  and  form  the  same  plasmodium  that 
they  did  when  on  the  parent  stock  ;  the  cutting  grows, 
and  often  not  only  forms  ultimately  the  entire  tree, 
but  preserves  the  characteristics  of  its  origin.  Often 
these  characteristics,  though  sought  for  by  the  gar- 
dener, are  really  monstrosities,  so  far  as  the  physi- 
ology of  the  plant  itself  is  concerned.  The  soft  shell 

268 


GROWTH  FROM  CUTTINGS.      ATAVISM 

of  the  Almond,  the  tender,  thin  skin  of  the  peach, 
or  the  double  petals  of  the  rose,  though  desirable  for 
the  tastes  of  mankind,  are  not  those  best  fitted  for 
the  life  or  propagation  of  the  tree  or  bush.  When 
accident  or  cultivation  has  produced  seedless  grapes, 
or  other  such  abortive  fruits,  it  is  self-evident  that 
the  extinction  of  their  kind  would  inevitably  follow 
in  course  of  time.  The  gardener,  for  his  own  profit 
merely,  seeks  the  culture  of  plants  and  fruits,  so  far  as 
practicable,  from  cuttings  only. 

All  plants  that  arise  from  seed  growth,  excepting 
annuals,  show  a  strong  tendency  to  atavism — that  is,  a 
reversion  to  the  ancestral  condition  or  that  of  the  wild 
state.  The  seedlings  that  spring  up  under  a  cherry, 
peach  or  apple  tree  will  develop  into  vigorous  trees, 
but  their  fruit  will  nearly  always  prove  to  be  worth- 
less. The  exclusive,  artificial  culture  in  certain  direct- 
ions of  particular  qualities  is  not  for  the  good  of  the 
plant  itself.  Even  an  over  development  of  those  proper- 
ties that  are  essential  to  the  seed  growth  may  be  injuri- 
ous. Thus  abnormally  sweet  and  highly  flavored 
fruits,  though  useful  in  tempting  cattle  or  wild  animals 
to  eat  them,  and  so  scatter  their  seed  abroad,  will  also 
attract  very  many  insects  to  live  upon  their  juice, 
who  will  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  fruit ;  their  larva 
attacking  later  the  leaves,  tissues,  or  even  the  seed 
itself,  thus  destroying  the  balance  between  the  pro- 
269 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tective  and  the  destructive  forces  of  nature.  Atavism 
may  be  viewed  as  the  reversal  of  the  processes  of 
evolution,  often  injurious  in  its  action ;  yet  it  is  the 
conservative  power  that  in  the  plant  world  restrains 
the  unlimited  and  often  undesirable  exercise  of  the 
power  of  variation  that  the  changes  of  sexual  condi- 
tions and  climatic  influences  exert,  and  which  would 
retard  rather  than  ultimately  advance  the  benefits  of 

evolution. 

270 


CHAPTER  XXII 

SENSATION  IN  PLANTS — VITAL  ENERGY  IN  THE 
ETHER — ANIMAL  LIFE — INCUBATION  OF  THE 
EGO PROGRESSIVE  CHANGES  THEREIN. 

IN  describing  the  simplest  organisms  that  manifest 
life,  it  was  pointed  out  that  no  sharp  dividing  line 
exists  between  animal  and  plant  life,  and  that  it  is 
often  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  say  whether 
certain  forms  should  be  classed  in  one  or  in  the  other 
categories.  The  vulgar  conception  that  recognized 
an  animal  as  the  only  being  with  an  innate  potency 
of  translatory  motion  is  known  to  be  erroneous. 
Not  only  have  the  lower  forms  of  plant  life  the  power 
of  motion  from  place  to  place,  but  inversely  many 
animals  among  the  much  higher  orders  are  immutably 
fixed,  often  with  less  power  of  moving  even  any 
portion  of  their  body  than  a  flower  possesses  in  the 
act  of  opening  or  closing  its  petals.  Nor  may  the 
mental  attributes  of  animals  be  totally  denied  to 
plants.  They  seem  to  possess  in  the  lower,  as  well 
as  in  the  higher  orders,  a  certain  consciousness,  a  self- 
271 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

determination  of  purpose,  in  seeking  or  avoiding 
light,  in  directing  their  rootlets  towards  water,  in  the 
movements  of  the  stamens  and  pistils,  and  other 
phenomena  of  vegetative  life,  that  are  as  curious  to 
observe  as  they  are  difficult  to  explain. 

In  the  absence  of  any  tissues  or  fibres  corresponding 
to  the  nervous  systems  of  animals,  one  fails  to  find  an 
explanation  of  the  movements  of  the  sensitive  plant 
on  being  touched,  or  of  the  closing  of  the  glandular 
hairs  of  the  Sun-dew  (Drosera)  upon  an  insect  that 
lights  on  the  flower,  to  be  quickly  digested  by  the 
acid  pepsin  that  the  plant  secretes.  The  leaves  of 
the  Venus  Flytrap  (Dioncea  Muscipula)  are  fur- 
nished at  their  ends  with  two  semi-circular  lobes, 
provided  inside  with  short,  sharp  bristles  or  thorns; 
the  lobes  have  teeth-like  projections  on  their  margins, 
and  they  close  together  like  the  covers  of  a  book. 
A  viscid  secretion  on  the  inner  surface  attracts 
insects;  on  alighting  thereon,  the  lobes  close  suddenly, 
imprisoning  the  insect,  which  dies  and  is  digested. 
If  small  pieces  of  meat  or  other  nitrogenous  food  are 
thrown  on  the  open  lobes,  the  same  action  results; 
but  if  sand,  fragments  of  wood,  or  even  amylaceous 
substances  are  scattered  thereon,  they  produce  no 
effect,  and  remain  on  the  open  lobes  until  washed  off 
or  blown  away.  Agitation  of  the  plant,  or  mechani- 

272 


SENSATION  IN  PLANTS 

cally  touching  any  part,  is  at  all  times  without 
effect. 

In  these  and  in  many  other  plants  provided  with 
similar  sensitive  contrivances  the  plasmodium  may 
be  seen  in  motion  in  the  vessels  that  appertain  to  the 
specialized  organs.  It  appears  to  fulfill  the  functions 
that  the  nerves  do  in  animals  when  they  carry  to  and 
from  the  brain  the  impressions  produced  by  the 
senses,  and  subsequently  transfer  therefrom  the  will 
power  that  controls  muscular  contraction.  The 
mechanism,  however,  that  would  seem  to  be  required 
for  such  substitution  has  never  been  observed,  though 
it  is  said  that  electric  currents  have  been  noted, 
which  might  have  some  analogy  with  the  electric- 
motor  character  of  the  nerves  and  muscles. 

No  structures  or  organs  are  known  in  plants  that 
correspond  to  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  centres  in 
animals.  The  conversion  of  the  purely  chemical  and 
physical  metamorphoses  in  the  higher  plants  as  well 
as  in  the  lower  orders,  into  the  inexplicable  phenom- 
ena of  sensation,  and  voluntary  motion,  seems  not 
to  be  relegated  to  a  special  division  of  the  plasmodium, 
differentiated  for  that  function,  but  to  be  the  general 
attribute  of  the  whole  plasma.  It  shows  itself  as 
active  not  only  in  the  specially  sensitive  plants  above- 
named,  but  also  in  the  petals  of  flowers,  in  the  move- 
ment of  leaves,  and  in  the  translatory  motion  of  the 
18  273 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION' 

young  algae  cells  and  of  their  reproductive  spores. 
It  must  be  looked  upon  as  a  manifestation  of  that 
energy  which,  conveyed  by  or  through  the  Ether, 
finds  expression  in  other  instances  in  animals  through 
an  intricate  plexus  of  nerves  and  blood  vessels,  but 
which  can  also  be  manifested,  when  needed  in  a 
simpler  form,  by  less  complicated  mechanism.  Since 
the  power  or  energy  that  acts  is  not  inherent  in  the 
plant,  but  in  the  Ether,  air  and  ligU  that  surrounds 
it,  this  power  can  find  in  the  simple,  shapeless,  naked 
amoeba,  that  looks  like  a  drop  of  liquid  gelatine,  the 
capacities  adequate  for  the  conservation  of  life,  the 
power  of  motion,  sensation,  volition,  and  ultimately 
evolution  into  a  higher  form  of  life,  perhaps  even 
into  the  very  highest !  An  organism  which  has 
sprung  from  the  very  dust  of  the  earth  is  animated 
by  the  same  power  that  moves  the  life  blood  of  men, 
and  that  may  have  in  part  come  hither  not  only 
from  the  Sun,  but  also  from  other  far  off  and 
unknown  stars  and  worlds  ! 

The  distinctive  line  of  demarcation  separating 
plant  from  animal  life,  as  already  stated,  is  not  the 
power  of  motion  possessed  by  the  latter,  but  the  fact 
that  all  animal  life  depends  alone  upon  the  absorption 
of  Oxygen  in  respiration  and  the  consequent  oxida- 
tion or  combustion  of  the  body  and  its  tissues,  thus 
liberating  in  various  forms,  the  energy  that  had  been 

274 


BREATHING  IN  ANIMALS 

stored  up  by  the  Ether  in  the  living  plants  that  the 
animal  had  consumed.  To  us,  who  move  about  on 
the  floor  of  an  aerial  ocean,  drawing  therefrom  the 
breath  of  life,  but  which  our  immersion  in  the  water 
near  us  would  quickly  end,  it  seems  at  first  thought 
strange  that  the  respiration,  on  which  all  animal  life 
depends,  should  be  identically  the  same  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  water  as  to  those  of  the  land,  the  former 
breathing  through  the  gills  the  oxygen  dissolved  in 
the  water,  the  latter,  through  the  lungs,  that  in  the 
air.  The  water  contains  only  four  per  cent,  of  its 
volume  of  free  oxygen  and  the  air  twenty  per  cent.; 
yet  as  the  contact  of  the  fluid  with  the  blood,  through 
the  gills,  is  more  intimate  than  that  of  the  air,  with 
the  blood  in  the  lungs,  it  is  even  more  effectual  in  its 
action.  In  all  probability  life  was  first  manifested 
in  the  water.  Many  of  its  simpler  forms  are  yet 
found  there  only.  The  order  of  their  evolution  seems 
to  have  been  from  fish  to  marine  reptiles,  then  to 
land  and  flying  reptiles ;  next,  birds ;  and,  lastly, 
the  mammalia. 

The  phenomena  of  motion,  sensation  and  conscious- 
ness, faintly  and  exceptionally  existing  in  plant  life, 
find  their  full  demonstration  in  the  life  of  animals. 
The  debatable  ground  occupied  by  the  lower  forms — 
the  "  Monera  "  of  Haeckle — has  been  mentioned,  and 
they  have  been  sufficiently  discussed.  Even  to  at- 
275 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tempt  the  slightest  sketch  of  the  progressive  com- 
plexity of  structure  that  attends  each  upward  step  in 
the  order  of  Animal  Life  would  require  this  article 
to  be  a  treatise  oh  comparative  physiology  and  zoology. 
To  examine  the  dividing  line  between  that  which  has 
not  life  and  that  which  has,  to  note  the  first  occurrence 
of  organization,  and  to  observe  the  way  and  the  only 
way  in  which  life  is  formed — a  resultant  from  a  pre- 
existing life  of  a  parent — has  been  our  purpose.  It 
is  better  observed  in  the  vegetative  world  than  it  can 
be  in  the  animal.  The  reproduction  of  life  from  the 
parent  cells,  and  the  physiological  changes  that  the 
microscope  reveal,  are  essentially  alike  in  plants  and 
in  animals,  and,  from  obvious  reasons,  are  better  dis- 
cussed, as  they  have  been  here,  .in  relation  to  the 
former.  The  analogy  between  the  germination  of  a 
seed  and  the  development  of  the  bird  from  the  egg 
may,  however,  be  momentarily  considered. 

The  process  in  the  formation  and  growth  from  the 
germ  is  essentially  the  same  in  the  viviparous  as  it  is  in 
the  oviparous  animal,  yet  it  can  be  far  better  observed 
in  the  latter  than  it  is  possible  to  do  in  the  former  in- 
stance. A  close  analogy  exists  in  many  ways  be- 
tween the  seed  of  a  plant  and  the  egg  of  an  animal. 
As  has  been  already  stated,  the  greater  portion  of  a 
seed,  a  grain  of  corn  for  instance,  consists  of  material 

provided  for  the  subsequent  nourishment  of  the  germ, 

276 


POTENTIAL   LTFE   OF  THE   GERM 

which  is  microscopically  small ;  starch,  gluten,  oil, 
mineral  salts  are  stored  in  the  grain  in  readiness  for 
the  demand  the  living  germ  will  make  when  the  con- 
ditions of  warmth,  air  and  moisture  will  awaken  it 
from  its  sleep.  A  long  sleep  it  may  be,  for  the  seed, 
wrapped  in  its  tough,  membraneous,  outer  skin,  may 
preserve  its  potency  of  subsequent  vitality  unchanged 
for  years  (though  not,  as  often  falsely  stated,  from 
the  time  of  the  Pharaohs !).  All  the  elements  re- 
quired for  the  young  plant  are  present,  and  upon 
which,  when  in  the  ground,  it  draws  and  lives,  until 
it  enters  the  world  above,  fitted  to  find  its  own  food 
from  the  air  and  soil. 

A  provision  of  essentially  the  same  means  towards 
the  same  end  is  made  for  the  embryo  bird.  The 
fertilized  egg  of  the  barnyard  fowl  may  be  taken  as 
an  example  of  all  eggs.  It  consists,  as  is  well  known, 
of  the  outer  calcareous  shell,  of  the  thin  lining  mem- 
brane thereof,  of  the  albumen  or  white  of  the  egg 
and  of  the  yolk,  or  the  yellow  oleo-albuminous  cen- 
tral portion,  both  containing  phosphorous  and  sulphur, 
as  all  protoplasm  does.  Most  important  of  all,  but 
occupying  so  little  of  the  total  weight  and  bulk  as 
usually  to  escape  notice,  is  the  germinative  vesicle, 
the  actual,  living  egg  itself;  all  the  rest  constituting 
merely  the  storehouse  and  provision  for  its  growth 
and  maintenance  until  it  leaves  the  shell  as  a  living 

277 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

bird.  In  the  egg  above  named,  on  careful  examina- 
tion, there  will  be  found,  always  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  yolk,  a  white,  circular,  disk-like  spot;  the 
Cicatricula,  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
(.006  m),  that  is  uncovered  by  the  layer  of  vitelline 
or  gelatinous  albumen — the  "  white  of  the  egg  " — that 
surrounds  it.  A  sort  of  canal,  formed  of  the  gelatinous 
vitelline,  connects  it  with  the  centre  of  the  yolk,  in 
which  there  is  a  cavity.  In  the  middle  of  the  little 
disk  is  a  small,  membranous,  somewhat  lenticular, 
white  body,  from  one-sixteenth  to  one-twelfth  of  an 
inch  in  diameter  (.001 5  to  .002  m) ;  it  is  transparent, 
and  the  surrounding  margins  have  a  radii-like  struc- 
ture. This  is  the  fertilized  germi native  vesicle.  In 
it  alone  is  the  potency  of  the  future  life.  All  the 
rest  of  the  egg  is  to  serve  only  for  its  protection  and 
nourishment.  At  the  centre  of  the  larger  end  of  the 
egg  a  small  vacuous  space  is  formed  by  the  vitelline 
detaching  itself  from  the  shell  and  investing  mem- 
brane. This  space,  which  increases  from  day  to  day, 
is  filled  with  air  that  enters  through  the  pores  of  the 
shell.  If  kept  in  a  cool  place,  at  a  temperature  of, 
say,  40  to  60  degrees  F.,  an  egg  will  retain  its  proper- 
ties for  a  number  of  days ;  it  will  also  resist  a  low 
temperature.  It  has  retained  its  vitality  even  when 
exposed  to  the  cold  of  10  degrees  F.  A  fresh-laid 
egg  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1,078  to  1,094.  It 

278 


INCUBATION  OF  AN  EGG 

loses  daily  0.0018  in  specific  gravity,  principally  from 
the  exhalation  of  carbon  dioxide. 

The  process  of  incubation  by  which  the  simple 
cellular  mass  of  plasmodium  is  converted  into  the 
living  chick  is  simply  the  same  process  that  takes 
place  in  the  germination  and  growth  of  a  seed,  only 
that  a  higher  temperature  is  requisite  for  its  origin 
and  continuance.  When  the  hen  has  laid  as  many 
eggs  as  she  can  cover — usually  about  a  dozen — an 
irresistible  desire  to  "set"  overcomes  her.  The 
sitting  hen  is  in  a  curious,  peculiar  state.  She  seems 
to  present  all  the  symptoms  of  fever,  her  eyes  are 
sparkling,  her  skin  burning,  she  drinks  more  than 
she  eats.  To  see  her  ardor  one  would  say  that  she 
comprehends  the  importance  of  the  function  that  she 
exercises.  Buffon  says  :  "  But  what  is  most  remark- 
able is  that  the  attitude  of  a  sitting  hen  (une  cou- 
veuse),  however  wearisome  it  may  appear  to  us,  is 
perhaps  less  a  source  of  ennui  than  it  is  a  state  of 
continued  enjoyment.  The  more  delightful  because 
it  is  inherited,  for  nature  seems  to  have  placed  a 
charm  in  all  that  has  relation  to  the  multiplication  of 
the  species." 

The  temperature  required  for   incubation  is   105 

degrees  F.,  continued  for  twenty-one  days.     This  is 

afforded  by  the  animal  heat  of  the  sitting  hen,  but 

is    equally  effective   if   furnished    from  any   other 

279 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

source,  provided  that  the  other  necessary  conditions 
of  fresh  air  without  excess  of  moisture  are  also 
present.  The  loss  of  weight  during  incubation  is 
about  twelve  per  cent.,  of  which  the  greater  part  is 
due  to  the  evaporation  of  water.  The  absorption  of 
oxygen  nearly  compensates  for  the  loss  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  by  oxidation,  and  exosmose  of  one 
portion  of  the  plasmodium  in  raising  the  remainder 
to  the  higher  organization  of  the  living  chick. 

The  progressive  changes  in  the  egg  under  the  heat 
of  incubation  have  been  frequently  studied.  At  the 
end  of  three  hours  the  cicatricula  has  increased  from 
.006  to  .008  m,  the  transparent  centre  to  .003  m.* 
In  six  hours  the  cicatricula  had  become  .0085,  the 
centre  .0035.  The  embryo  has  a  length  of  .001  m. 
In  nine  hours  the  cicatricula  measures  .009 ;  the 
pellucid  area  .004  m.  The  shape  more  decidedly  oval 
and  a  structural  texture  more  evident.  The  embryo 
now  is  .0027  m  in  length  and  its  marginal  surround- 
ings better  defined.  In  sixteen  hours  the  disk  con- 
taining the  embryo  shows  great  change.  The  upper 
lateral  surface  is  much  contracted  by  becoming 
rounded,  and  the  folds  that  the  membrane  has  made 
in  thus  changing  are  bent  back  like  a  vail  before  the 
cephalic  extremity  of  the  embryo.  Below,  the  sides 

*  A  Meter  is  about  forty  inches.     A  millemeter  (.001)  is  approxi- 
mately one  twenty -fifth  of  an  inch. 
280 


INCUBATION  OF  AN  EGG 

form  a  concavity  in  the  middle  part,  their  margins 
coming  together  under  an  acute  angle,  comparable 
to  the  shape  of  a  lance  head,  the  embryo  occupy- 
ing the  middle  position.  The  groove  that  is  to  be- 
come the  vertebral  canal  becomes  distinguishable,  and 
the  latter  soon  after  is  formed.  The  cicatricula  is 
now  .016,  the  pellucid  area  .006  in  diameter  and  the 
embryo  .0055  m  long.  Three  hours  later  it  is 
.0065  m  long.  When  the  incubation  has  lasted  for 
thirty  hours  the  commencing  formation  of  the  prin- 
cipal organs — the  heart,  brain,  etc. — can  distinctly  be 
seen.  At  this  time  a  vascular  network  commences 
in  the  cicatricula.  The  blood  divides  itself  to  the 
right  and  left  of  the  embryo  into  a  plexus  of  capil- 
laries, that  gather  finally  into  larger  vessels  that  carry 
it  above,  or  direct  it  below,  whence  it  returns  to  the 
heart. 

In  forty-five  or  forty-six  hours  there  may  be  seen 
towards  the  abdominal  region  of  the  chick  a  trans- 
parent membranous  vesicle  about  the  size  of  the  head 
of  a  pin.  This  develops  rapidly,  spreads  itself  over 
the  surface  of  the  yolk,  and  finally  invades  the  whole 
inner  surface  of  the  shell,  to  which  it  attaches  itself. 
That  portion  of  the  vesicle  which  is  in  contact  with 
the  shell  is  abundantly  provided  with  blood  vessels, 
and  it  is  evident  that  the  blood  which  is  sent  thither 
is  venous,  whilst  that  which  returns  is  arterial.  It 
28! 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

corresponds  to  the  allantois  and  to  the  chorion  in  the 
mammalia.  The  amuion  shows  very  clearly  on  the 
third  day.  It  is  evidently  derived  from  a  fold  of  the 
cicatricula,  which  envelops  the  chick  after  having 
formed  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  development  now 
progresses  uniformly.  The  remainder  of  the  yolk  is 
found  enclosed  within  the  abdomen  as  soon  as  the 
latter  is  formed,  and  serves  to  nourish  the  chick  for 
the  first  twenty-fours  after  the  young  bird  has 
escaped  from  its  shell.  During  incubation  respira- 
tion takes  place  at  first,  as  before  stated,  by  absorption 
of  oxygen  through  the  air  space  that  is  found  at  the 
large  end  of  the  shell  soon  after  it  is  laid.  After 
two  days'  incubation  the  blood  vessels  that  spread 
over  the  inside  of  the  shell  absorb  directly  by  endos- 
mose  the  oxygen  that  penetrates  through  the  pores  of 
the  shell,  the  latter  becoming  more  porous  as  the 
incubation  progresses,  the  shell  becoming  more  and 
more  brittle  proportionally,  and  at  last  is  readily 
pierced  by  the  beak  of  the  bird.* 

Thus  within  three  weeks,  under  the  influence  of 
heat,  moisture  and  oxygen,  the  mass  of  plasmodium 
constituting  an  almost  undifferentiated  cell — the  new 
laid  egg — rises  from  the  condition  of  structureless 
protoplasm  into  that  of  a  highly  organized,  living 
creature,  with  its  wonderful  apparatus  for  the  circula- 

*  Pierre  Larousse.    T.  XI.    P.  1263. 
383 


INCUBATION  OF  AN  EGG 

tion  of  blood,  its  ceaseless  rythmic  heart  action,  its 
power  of  locomotion,  and,  most  wonderful  of  all,  the 
faculties  of  sensation,  perception  and  volition.  It  is 
no  longer  merely  an  organism,  curiously  and  elabo- 
rately made,  but  subject  utterly  to  the  outside  influence 
of  foreign  causes,  or  the  controlling  action  of  wind  or 
weather,  as  plant  life  has  been.  It  is  an  independent 
being,  with  its  pains  and  pleasures,  its  fears  and 
hopes,  its  likes  and  dislikes,  its  sorrows  and  its  affec- 
tions. The  love  and  devotion  that  the  mother-fowl 
shows  in  watching,  caring  for  and  defending  her 
helpless  brood  has  rendered  her  typical  of  a  mother's 
love.  The  courage,  fierceness  and  fortitude  of  the 
other  parent,  in  his  battle  to  the  death  with  his 
feathered  rivals,  has  made  him  as  proverbial  for  his 
qualities,  and  yet  these  and  all  other  manifestations  of 
animal  life  laid  dormant  within  its  shell,  without 
more  than  the  potency  of  living,  until  the  vivifying 
influence  of  the  light  and  heat  of  the  Ether  for 
twenty-one  days  gave  it  life  and  woke  it  into  being. 

The  changes  that  we  can  readily  observe  in  the 
growth  of  the  bird  within  its  shell  almost  from  its 
first  conception,  are  almost  identically  the  same  in  the 
growth  of  the  vivipara,  but,  of  course,  are  hidden 
from  our  sight  during  the  mother's  life;  the  parent 
giving  within  itself,  hour  by  hour,  and  day  by  day, 
the  nourishment  that  is  requisite,  and  that  is  pre- 
283 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

pared,  as  demanded,  not  from  a  storehouse  provided 
in  advance,  as  in  the  egg.  With  those  born  living 
the  conversion  of  food  into  tissue  and  the  oxidation 
of  the  carbohydrates  and  the  nitrogenous  albuminoids 
in  the  parent,  elevate  a  portion  into  the  higher  plane 
of  organization  requisite  for  the  existing  life  and 
for  the  new  one  forming;  the  phenomena  of  the 
growth  of  sensation,  of  consciousness,  and  of  will, 
being  equally  as  impossible  to  comprehend  in  the 
vivipara  as  it  is  with  the  ovipara. 

The  new-formed  embryo,  being  the  inheritor  of  the 
protoplasmic  cell  structure  from  each  of  its  parents, 
inherits  likewise  their  individual  idiosyncrasies.  As 
the  adults  can  only  have  fertile  offspring  when  they 
are  closely  allied  in  species  and  conformation,  their 
young  will  usually  represent  very  nearly  the  average 
of  the  breed  from  whence  they  have  sprung.  The 
tendency  to  resemble  the  inherited  traits  of  one  line 
of  parentage  more  than  that  of  another  is  dependent 
upon  the  conditions  of  relative  adaptation  of  either 
parent  structure  to  the  needs  of  its  existence,  and  the 
consequent  development  in  its  offspring  of  that  form 
of  structure  that  is  best  fitted  for  its  life,  rather  than 
that  of  the  other  form.  Thus  are  introduced  varia- 
tions in  some  of  their  descendants  that  give  rise  in 
time  to  so  great  changes  that  new  species  are  formed. 
The  details,  causes  and  conditions  thereof  constitute 

284 


DIVERGING  HEREDITY 

the  subject  matter  of  Darwin's  doctrine  of  the 
"  Origin  of  Species,"  and  of  the  higher  evolutions  of 
life  by  natural  selection  and  by  the  "  survival  of  the 

fittest." 

285 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

EVOLUTION   OF  LIFE— ORIGINAL    MEANING — HUX- 
LEY'S    DEFINITION — PRECURSORS    OF    DARWIN — 


THE  phrase  "  Evolution  of  Life "  had  in  the 
18th  Century  a  different  meaning  from  that  which  it 
bears  in  the  latter  half  of  the  19th.  To  Bonnet, 
Malebranche,  Leibnitz,  as  Philosophers,  and  to  Mal- 
peghi,  and  to  many  other  naturalists,  the  question 
thereby  suggested  was,  whether  or  not  the  germs  of  a 
new  life  contained  within  themselves  the  perfect  plant 
or  animal  in  miniature,  and  which  subsequently 
evolved,  or  unfolded  itself,  into  the  growing  life  by 
merely  a  process  of  augmentation.  Malebranche  said : 
"  God  has  formed  in  a  single  fly  all  those  that  will 
ever  come  from  it."  Thus,  they  argued,  the  germs, 
past,  present  and  future,  were  shut  up  ("  emboite's,  ou 
incases  ")  one  within  the  other. 

To  this  conception  of  the  nature  of  the  germ,  Bon- 
net added  another,  which  he  thought  equally  plausible, 
viz. :  that  the  germs  of  all  beings  (animal  or  plant) 

286 


THE  EVOLUTION  OF  LIFE 

are  widely  disseminated  in  a  partially  developed  state 
through  the  air  and  water,  and  will  become  alive 
when  they  fall  into  an  organism  similar  to  that  from 
which  they  came ;  thus  constituting  all  surrounding 
nature  into  a  vast  reservoir  for  their  conservation. 
Opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  evolution  was  that  held  by 
Buffon — "  Paccolement. "  He  imagined  a  primitive 
organic  matter,  distinct  from  inorganic  matter,  com- 
posed of  living  molecules,  incorruptible  and  always 
active.  These  molecules,  spread  everywhere,  served 
for  nourishment  and  growth.  When  the  growth  is 
finished  the  overplus  of  molecules  is  sent  from  all 
parts  of  the  body  to  a  reservoir  or  special  organ. 
Those  which  come  from  a  given  organism  recipro- 
cally attract  each  other,  so  as  to  produce  a  sort  of 
miniature  thereof.  Thus  the  organs  of  the  new  beings 
are  produced  by  the  regular  and  harmonious  accre- 
tions of  the  molecules  in  excess,  and  thus  bear  the 
impress  of  the  parents. 

These  doctrines  of  evolution,  as  then  understood, 
and  of  Paccolement,  founded  only  on  imagination, 
have  given  way  to  the  third  doctrine  then  held,  of 
even  older  date  than  either,  that  of  "  Epigenesis,"  or 
that  in  which  the  germ  is  actually  procreated  by  the 
parent  plants  or  animals,  not  simply  expanded  or  un- 
folded. It  was  held  by  Hippocrates  of  old,  by  Har- 
vey, by  Etienne  Geoffrey  Saint  Hillaire,  and  is  now 

287 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

the  basis  of  modern  evolution.  It  is  purely  the  nega- 
tion of  the  preceding  hypotheses.  It  is  merely  a  law 
or  system  that  unites  together  the  observed  facts,  not 
an  explanation  of  the  facts  themselves,  f  As  now  un- 
derstood, Evolution  is  thus  described  by  Huxley : 
He  said  :  "  Those  who  believe  in  the  doctrine  of  Evo- 
lution— and  I  am  of  that  number — find  serious 
reasons  for  thinking  that  this  world  with  all  that  is 
in  it  and  on  it,  did  not  first  appear  with  the  conditions 
that  now  show  themselves,  nor  with  anything  that  at 
all  approaches  thereto.  On  the  contrary,  I  believe 
that  the  conformation  and  the  composition  of  the  ter- 
restrial crust,  the  distribution  of  land  and  water,  the 
infinite  varieties  of  plants  and  of  animals  that  form 
its  present  population,  are  only  the  last  terms  of  an 
immense  series  of  changes,  accomplished  in  the  course 
of  incalculable  periods  by  the  action  of  causes  more 
or  less  like  those  that  are  at  work  to-day."  |  Thus 
understood,  Evolution  embraces  the  geological  theories 
of  Lyell,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  "Origin  of  Species" 
of  Darwin.  It  is  generally  understood  by  most  men, 
as  it  is  by  the  writer  of  these  pages,  that  the  process  or 
processes  called  Evolution,  whether  in  Cosmic  or 
in  living  Forces,  are  indicative  of  the  manner,  or  of 
the  means,  by  which  the  existing  conditions  of  the 
world  and  of  the  Life  around  us  have  arisen.  They 
are  not  the  final  causes,  but  are  the  efficient  causes 

288 


LORD  MONBODDO 

only ;  the  method  by  which  the  Higher  Intelligence 
that  rules  the  Universe  has  acted  through  natural 
laws.  The  Final,  or  determinative,  cause*  of  these,  as 
of  nearly  every  phenomenon,  lies  beyond  the  limits 
of  all  human  faculties. 

Among  the  writers  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
who  turned  their  attention  to  the  relations  between 
the  lower  animals  and. man,  one  of  the  earliest  was 
James  Burnett,  Lord  Monboddo,  b.  1714;  d.  1799, 
whose  curious  combinations  of  Aristotelian  philosophy, 
classical  learning  and  Orthodox  religion,  with 
credulous  belief  and  original  doctrines,  excited  the 
astonishment  and  ridicule  alike  of  the  learned  and 
the  unlearned  world.  An  earnest  adherent  to  the 
scholastic  philosophy  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  be- 
liever in  the  infinite  superiority  of -all  real  knowledge 
as  possessed  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  that  of  the 
degenerate  men  of  his  own  day,  he  rejected  the 
Newtonian  astronomy  as  being  false  and  materialistic, 
if  not  atheistic.  He  accepted,  however,  the  belief  in 
Mermaids  and  Mermen,  and  considered  as  reasonably 
well-established  by  credible  evidences,  the  existence 
of  the  men  described  by  Strabo  and  mentioned  by 
Othello — "  Whose  heads  do  grow  beneath  their 
shoulders."  In  contradiction  to  the  general  trend  of 
his  theories,  he  devoted  a  large  part  of  his  two 
voluminous  works  ("  The  Origin  of  Language,"  6 
19  289 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

Vols.,  Octavo,  1773;  and  "Ancient  Metaphysics," 
6  Vols.,  Quarto,  1779)  to  the  advocacy  of  the  doctrine 
that  man  Ls  descended  from  the  lower  animals,  and 
that  the  Ourang-outang  (under  which  name  he 
grouped  a  number  of  apes  and  the  larger  monkeys) 
was  really  the  lowest  form  of — but  nevertheless — a 
true  man.  This  theory  of  the  derivation  of  man 
especially  excited  the  derision  of  all  persons.  Dr. 
Samuel  Johnson,  who  was  entertained  in  1773  by 
Monboddo  at  his  country  seat  in  Scotland,  and  who 
shared  with  him  the  love  for  classical  learning  and 
metaphysics,  with  the  like  indifference  to  mathematics 
and  the  natural  sciences,  spoke  of  him  as  "A  Scotch 
Judge  who  has  lately  written  a  strange  book  about 
the  Origin  of  Language,  in  which  he  traces  monkeys 
up  to  men,  and  says  that  in  some  countries  the 
human  species  have  tails,  like  other  beasts."  He 
attacked  Lord  Monboddo's  strange  speculations 
on  the  primitive  state  of  human  nature,  saying  to 
Boswell :  "Sir,  it  is  all  conjecture  about  a  thing  use- 
less, even  were  it  known  to  be  true.  Knowledge  of 
all  kind  is  good  ;  conjecture  as  to  things  is  good  ;  but 
conjectures  as  to  what  it  would  be  useless  to  know, 
such  as  whether  men  went  upon  all-fours,  is  very 
idle."  (Boswell ;  Johnson's  "  Journey  to  the  Heb- 
rides.'7) This  inchoate  form  of  an  investigation  by 
Monboddo  into  the  descent  of  Man  was  devoid  of 

290 


LAMARCK 

scientific  value  from  the  absence  of  nearly  all  induc- 
tive evidence,  and  consisted  mainly  of  inadequate 
a-priori  reasoning,  yet  it  was  the  only  subject  worthy 
of  serious  consideration  in  his  voluminous  pages,  and 
will  keep  his  name  alive  as  one  of  the  early  pioneers 
into  speculations  that  have  since  then  changed  the 
very  basis  of  modern  thought.  His  classical  learn- 
ing was  useless  to  him ;  his  metaphysics  and  philos- 
ophy were  erroneous  or  worthless;  but  what  Dr. 
Johnson  and  others  thought  were  idle  conjectures, 
contemptible  and  ridiculous,  have  proved  to  be  pre- 
mature glimpses  by  him,  of  the  light  to  come  nearly 
a  century  later. 

In  the  development  of  the  doctrine  of  Evolution, 
Jean  Baptiste  Pierre  Antoine  de  Monet,  Chevalier  de 
Lamarck,  Jesuit  Student,  soldier,  Botanist,  Chemist 
and  Biologist,  b.  1 744 ;  d.  1 829,  brought  widely  different 
faculties  to  the  service  of  science.  He  was  born  at 
Bazentin  in  Picardie.  When  scarcely  seventeen  years 
old  he  escaped  from  the  Jesusit  College  at  Amiens, 
and  joined  the  French  army  as  a  Volunteer  on  the 
eve  of  the  battle  of  Wittinghausen  against  the 
allied  armies  of  England  and  Prussia.  His  firmness 
and  bravery  were  so  strikingly  shown  that  he  was 
rewarded  by  being  made  a  lieutenant,  and  as  such 
distinguished  himself  in  several  engagements.  Not 
long  after,  an  injury  accidentally  received  from  a 

291 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

fellow-officer  obliged  him  to  leave  the  army.  After 
a  year's  illness  and  consequent  confinement,  his 
necessities  forced  him  to  seek  some  other  means  of 
living.  He  determined  to  study  medicine,  support- 
ing himself  meanwhile  by  employment  in  a  banker's 
office,  his  own  inherited  income  not  exceeding  400 
francs.  After  four  years'  trial,  not  liking  the  practice 
of  medicine,  he  abandoned  himself  exclusively  to 
botany.  After  several  years  of  study  he  published 
his  "  Flore  Francaise,"  in  which  he  introduced  a  new 
system  of  classification.  Thanks  to  the  approval  and 
assistance  of  Buffon  and  of  Cuvier,  his  work  was  very 
successful  and  had  a  rapid  sale.  He  received  a  place 
in  the  Botanic  Division  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 
Buffon  procured  for  him  the  position  of  Royal 
Botanist.  With  the  son  of  Buffon,  Lamarck  visited 
the  establishments  and  the  learned  men  of  Holland, 
Germany  and  Hungary.  After  his  return  to  France, 
he  contributed  the  section  on  Botany  to  the  Encyclo- 
paedic-Method ique.  He  was  appointed  to  take  charge 
of  the  herbarium  in  the  Cabinet  of  the  Royal  Gardens, 
which  he  held  until  the  Revolution  in  1792  broke  up 
all  the  Societies  of  Savants.  With  this  event  his 
botanical  labors  ceased.  The  following  year  the 
Assembly  reconstituted  the  establishment  under  the 
title  of  the  Museum  of  Natural  History,  leaving  the 
occupants  of  the  places  to  choose  among  themselves 

292 


LAMARCK 

the  various  new  Chairs.  Lamarck,  being  the  youngest 
of  the  members,  had  to  be  contented  with  the  least 
desirable  of  the  positions — one  that  no  one  else 
wanted — that  under  which,  according  to  the  system  of 
Linnaeus,  were  classified  the  worms  and  insects.  He 
had  until  then  paid  but  little  attention  to  any  branch 
of  Zoology,  but  he  devoted  himself  with  such  assid- 
uity to  the  new  study  that  his  work  there  stood  on  a 
higher  level  than  even  his  botanical  labors.  To  him 
is  due  the  classification  and  the  term  of  the  "  Inver- 
tebrata,"  which  appropriately  designates  the  distin- 
guishing feature  in  these  large  classes  of  living 
beings.  He  depended  upon  Cuvier  for  the  anatomical 
details,  as  he  had  no  practical  facility  therein,  but 
supplied  the  power  of  co-ordination  and  classification, 
in  which  Cuvier  was  often  deficient. 

It  was  unfortunate  for  the  fame  of  Lamarck,  even 
during  his  lifetime,  that  the  speculative  nature  of  his 
mind  built  theories  upon  insufficient  or  absolutely 
wanting  foundations.  With  no  practical  or  experi- 
mental knowledge  of  Chemistry,  he  attacked  the 
doctrines  and  discoveries  of  Lavoisier,  and  attempted 
to  overthrow  by  a-priori  reasoning  the  facts  carefully 
established  by  experiment.  He  also  projected  sys- 
tems of  geology,  meteorology  and  of  natural  philos- 
ophy, all  of  which  had  the  serious  fault  of  not 
according  with  the  known  facts.  The  theory  of 

293 


THE  PATti  Of  EVOLUTION 

spontaneous  generation  which  he  advocated,  though 
since  held  in  later  days  by  many  learned  men,  has 
now  lost  all  support  by  the  disproof  of  its  em- 
pirical occurrence.  He  rendered  to  mankind  the 
eminent  service  of  arousing  attention  to  the  proba- 
bility that  all  change  in  the  organic,  as  well  as  in  the 
inorganic,  world  was  the  result  of  law,  and  not  of 
miraculous  interposition.  His  theories  of  the  origin 
of  species  were,  that  the  organs  of  an  animal  were 
modified  by  the  desires  and  will  of  the  individual,  in 
response  to  external  conditions.  The  changes  thus  in- 
duced would  be  transmitted  to  their  offspring,  subject, 
moreover,  to  like  changes  from  new  conditions,  so  that, 
if  illimitable  time  was  granted,  it  would  account  for 
the  formation  of  the  highest  order  of  animals  from 
the  lowest  organisms.  In  accordance  with  this  doc- 
trine, he  held  that  man  himself  was  derived  from  the 
species  next  below  him,  the  anthropoid  apes.  These, 
opinions  openly  and  forcibly  expressed,  though 
received  with  general  indignation  and  ridicule  at  the 
time,  and  for  generations  of  those  who  came  after 
him,  now  serve  to  make  his  name  illustrious.  They 
embody  the  same  idea  subsequently  demonstrated  by 
Darwin  and  by  Wallace  to  be  true,  and  now  elaborated 
by  them  into  the  doctrine  of  Natural  Selection. 

Soon  after  Lamarck's  appointment  to  his  Zoolog- 
ical  Chair   his  sight   began   to  fail,  so  that  he  was 

294 


LAMARCK 

obliged  to  depend  upon  the  assistance  of  others  for 
the  observation  of  the  structure  of  insects.  In  his 
later  years  he  became  absolutely  blind.  To  this  trial 
was  added  that  of  very  limited  means,  his  peculiar 
views  on  scientific  subjects  not  making  friends  for 
him  with  those  in  authority.  The  devotion  of  his 
children  to  him  compensated  for  many  other  depriv- 
ations. His  eldest  daughter  especially,  moved  by 
filial  love,  for  years  gave  her  whole  life  to  him, 
lending  herself  to  the  studies  that  could  enable  her 
to  replace  his  want  of  sight,  and  writing  from  his 
dictation  the  greater  part  of  his  later  works.  As  his 
infirmities  increased  and  confined  him  to  his  chamber, 
she  never  left  the  house,  "  Feeling  incommoded,"  she 
said,  "  by  the  open  air,  of  which  she  had  lost  the 
usage."  Such  affection  unfortunately  is  rare.  It 
is  no  light  eulogy  upon  the  character  of  Lamarck 
that  he  inspired  such  love  and  devotion  in  his  off- 
spring. 

To  Charles  (Robert)  Darwin  (b.  at  Shrewsbury, 
Eng.,  Nov.  12,  1809  ;  d.  April  19,  1882)  is  due  the 
merit  of  placing  upon  the  basis  of  scientific  demon- 
stration the  theories  and  conjectures  of  many  minds 
that  had  preceded  him.  He  states:  "The  first  whose, 
conclusions  excited  much  attention  was  Lamarck. 
Geoffry  Saint  Hillaire  and  many  others  have  since 
295 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

then  suggested  the  same  or  analogous  ideas.     They 
scarcely  advanced,  however,  beyond  conjectures."  * 
The  doctrines  that  are  embodied  in  what  is  known 

as  Darwinism  are : 

• 

1.  The  laws  of  Natural  Selection,  or  the  inherit- 
ance by  plants  or  animals  of  the  traits  of  ancestors, 
modified  at  times  by  such   variations  as  may  be  of 
advantage  to  the  young  and  growing  organism,  and 
which  variations,  if  of  benefit  to  the  tribal  order,  may 
be  transmitted  by  inheritance. 

2.  The  law  of  the  Survival  of  the  Fittest,  or  the 
recognition  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  due  to  the 
constantly  increasing  number  of  plants  and  animals, 
while  space  for  them,  and  food  in,  or  on  the  soil,  is 
limited.     Those  that  are  best  fitted  in  strength  and 
vital  forces  for  the  struggle,  or  those  that  undergo 
such  modifications,  either  direct  or  indirect,  as  will 
give  them  an  advantage  over  their  competitors,  will 
survive ;  the  less  fitted  and  weaker  ones  will  die  out. 
The  offspring  will  therefore  be  from  the  strongest  and 
best  of  their  kind. 

3.  The   Laws    of   Sexual  Selection.      Manifested 
apparently,  only  in  the  higher  order  of  plants  and 
animals,  at  least  scarcely  visible  in  the  lowest.     In 
animals  this  selection  is  often  dependent  upon  physi- 

*  Historical  Sketch  prefacing  the  first  edition  of  the  "  Origin  of 
296 


DARWINISM 

cal  strength  only,  as  where  the  male  overcomes, 
destroys  or  drives  away  his  weaker  rivals.  Especially 
is  this  the  case  among  poly gy nous  animals,  for 
instance — the  ox  family,  deer,  the  fur  seal,  the 
domestic  fowl,  and  many  others.  In  other  instances, 
especially  among  birds,  an  appeal  seems  to  be  made  to 
an  aesthetic  sense,  and  as  the  beautiful  is  usually  the 
exponent  of  health,  strength  and  functional  adapta- 
tion, the  owner  of  the  most  brilliant  plumage  becomes 
the  chosen  one.  With  song  birds  the  charm  of  their 
melody  is  equally  effective. 

Among  plants  it  is  only  those  whose  flowers  re- 
quire fertilization  by  pollen  carried  to  them  by  birds 
or  insects  that  bear  showy,  brilliant  petals.  Those 
that  have  pollen  brought  to  them  by  the  wind  are  in- 
conspicuous and  colorless.  With  flowers,  the  birds 
and  insects  supply  that  consciousness  and  volition  that 
the  plants  themselves  are  devoid  of. 

The  above  doctrines  Darwin  has  established,  not 
so  much  by  experiments,  for  which  the  life  of  a  man 
is  too  short,  but  by  innumerable  observations  that  he 
has  made  in  both  kingdoms  of  nature,  and  by  the 
thousands  of  explanations  he  has  given  for  peculiari- 
ties shown  in  animal  and  plant  physiology  and  struc- 
ture that  are  otherwise  unintelligible.  The  occurrence 
of  abortive  organs,  of  useless  structures,  the  facts  of 
Embryology,  of  Atavism,  and  many  heretofore  iu- 
297 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

explicable  phenomena  in  organic  life,  up  to  and  in- 
cluding that  of  man,  find  only  here  their  satisfactory 
explanation. 

In  the  doctrine  of  Natural  Selection  and  Survival 
of  the  Fittest,  the  variations  from  inheritance  that 
benefit  the  individual  or  its  descendant  are  often  pro- 
duced by  unconscious  response  to  external  conditions 
in  the  environment,  sometimes  too  obscure  to  be 
recognized,  and  constitute  then  what  are  commonly 
called  accidental  changes,  but  in  reality  they  are  the 
result  of  established  laws,  only  so  deeply  involved 
that  they  are  not  apparent  to  us. 

In  the  case  of  sexual  selection  a  new  motive  force 
is  supplied.  It  necessarily  requires  conscious  action 
and  volition.  These  phenomena  in  the  higher  order 
of  life  are  assumed  to  be  present  and  efficient. 

298 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE    BRAIN    IN     MAN    AND    ANIMALS — STRUCTURE- 
LESS, 
*IS] 

— POTENCY    OF    LIFE    IN    SEEDS   UNINJURED   BY 
EXTREME   COLD. 

THE  intellect  of  man  and  the  reasoning  faculties 
of  animals,  whether  thought  to  be  differing  in  degree 
or  differing  in  kind,  are  unquestionably  alike  de- 
pendent upon  the  organization  and  structure  of  the 
brain.  An  injury  to  almost  any  part  thereof,  whether 
in  man  or  beast,  disturbs  or  destroys  the  action  of 
the  senses  and  obliterates  the  memory.  Pressure 
upon  the  substance  of  the  brain  renders  the  subject 
unconscious  or  insensible.  In  man,  disease  or  fever 
perverts  the  reason,  and  delirium  or  insanity  take  the 
place  of  the  intelligent  mind.  Narcotics  or  alcohol 
at  first  stimulate  to  overaction,  then  stupify  the  brain, 
and  often  establish  a  morbid  habit  that  destroys  the 
Will  and  the  Moral  Sense. 

Anesthetics  deprive  man  or  beast  of  sensation,  con- 
299 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

sciousness  and  volition,  leaving  active  only  the  un- 
conscious vegetative  life  of  the  cerebellum,  the  cere- 
brum and  its  higher  faculties  being  in  a  state  of 
stupor.  It  is  known  that  the  grey  matter  of  the 
brain  is  the  seat  of  the  mental  operations,  but  how 
it  acts,  or  what  are  the  metaraorpheses  that  take  place, 
it  is  impossible  even  to  conjecture. 

It  is  the  mechanism  by  which  the  Volition  of  the 
ULTIMATE  POWER  converts  other  forms  of  Energy 
into  Sensation,  Consciousness  and  Will.  When  the 
brain  of  various  animals,  successively  lower  in  their 
organization,  are  examined,  the  convolutions  of  the 
cerebrum  are  found  to  be  correspondingly  fewer  in 
number,  simpler,  and  smoother  on  their  surface. 
Descending  still  lower,  the  sensory  ganglia  alone  are 
found,  which,  with  the  spinal  cord,  are  sufficient  for 
the  functions  of  their  life.  With  insects  the  cephalic 
ganglia  control  or  direct  the  ganglia  of  the  nervous 
system,  giving  rise  to  the  reflex  actions  that  mainly 
constitute — as  Dr.  Carpenter  thinks — the  manifesta- 
tions of  instinct,  often  so  wonderfully  developed  in 
this  class.  Thus  descending  ever  lower  and  lower 
in  organic  life,  increasing  simplicity  in  general  struc- 
ture is  found,  until  the  Amoeba  among  animal  life 
and  the  Myxomycetes  among  plant  life  are  reached. 
They  show  consciousness,  sensation  and  volition,  low 
in  degree,  but  in  no  respect  different  in  kind  from 

300 


THE  MECHANISM  ONLY  OF  LIFE 

the  faculties  shown  by  others  higher  in  the  scale  of 
life ;  yet  these  living  creatures  are  almost,  if  riot  ut- 
terly, devoid  of  organs,  structure,  or  any  form ;  no 
one  portion  differs  from  another;  all  parts  are  brain , 
all  stomach,  all  limb  ;  all  parts  are  sensitive  and  seek 
or  avoid  the  light.  If  broken  up  or  divided  each 
fragment  lives  on  a  life  of  its  own.  They  are  simply 
formless,  shapeless,  gelatinous  masses,  but  capable  of 
self-movement,  of  seeking  their  food  and  converting 
it  into  their  own  substance.  They  have  sensation, 
volition  and  perception.  Like  the  germinal  chloro- 
phyll-holding cells  of  the  Vaucheria  Clavata,  they 
are  not  merely-lumps  of  plasmodium  with  the  potency 
of  life ;  they  are  living  creatures,  having  received  life 
from  parent  organisms,  and  in  turn  begetting  others 
with  the  like  or  higher  capacities  than  their  own. 

In  observing  the  varied  phenomena  that  nature 
offers  in  the  many  protean  changes  of  energy  from 
one  form  to  that  of  another,  such  as  the  production  of 
light,  of  heat,  of  galvanic  or  electric  currents,  there 
is  a  constant  tendency  to  confound  the  mechanism, 
contrivance,  or  means,  by  which,  or  through  which, 
the  change  occurs,  with  the  ultimate  cause  itself; 
to  lose  sight  of  the  pre-existing  energy  as  the  motive 
force,  and  thus  to  substitute  conditions  for  causes. 
In  the  days  of  exclusive,  a-priori,  reasoning  this  was 
natural  enough ;  indeed,  was  inevitable.  The  ring- 

301 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

ing  bell  was  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  sound  that 
reached  the  human  ear.  The  theory  that  the  air  vi- 
brations alone  affected  the  ear  that  heard  the  sound 
was  considered  foolishness  and  false,  until,  placing  the 
ringing  bell  in  the  air  pump's  vacuum,  proved  that 
where  there  was  no  air  there  could  be  no  sound. 
There  was  a  time  when  Sound  did  not  exist  on  the 
earth— ere  on  its  surface  life  appeared.  When  first 
cooled  from  its  fiery  glow,  "  The  wreck  of  matter 
and  the  crush  of  worlds  "  undoubtedly  gave  origin  to 
the  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  aerial  spheres 
whose  onward  moving  waves  now  carry  Sound  to  the 
ear.  But  the  waves  then  died  unheard.  No  ear? 
animal  or  human,  existed  to  transmit  their  impulse, 
and  no  brain  to  receive  them.  They  would  only  be 
"  Winds  that  withered  in  the  stagnant  air,"  or  beat 
silently  on  the  rocks  and  stones,  for  Sound  is  only 
Sound  when  heard  by  the  subjective  brain ;  in  itself 
it  is  only  an  aerial  impulse,  signifying  nothing. 

The  Electricity  that  was  produced  by  rubbing  pieces 
of  amber  was  early  observed  by  the  Greeks.  Homer 
in  the  "  Odyssey,"  IV.,  70,  speaks  of  amber :  "  The 
flashing  of  gold  and  of  amber,  of  silver  and  of  ivory." 
The  curious  property  it  showed  of  attracting  and  re- 
pelling small  light  particles  obtained  its  name — 
Electricity — from  the  Greek  term  for  amber — "  Elec- 
tron." The  legend  being  that  in  the  Baltic  Sea  am- 

302 


THE   MECHANISM  ONLY  OF  LIFE 

ber  was  produced  by  the  tears  shed  by  the  daughters 
of  the  Sun  God — one  of  whose  names  was  Elektron 
— bewailing  the  loss  of  their  brother,  Phacethon. 
Amber  was  the  source  of  numberless  fables,  supersti- 
tions and  romantic  interests  brought  from  the  distant 
and  almost  unknown  shores  whence  it  came.  The 
workmen  who  carved  it  were  seized  with  strange, 
nervous  twitchings  in  their  hands  and  arms.  It  was 
thought  to  have  a  soul.  Even  to  the  present  day 
the  common  people  believe  there  is  a  charm  in  amber 
beads  that  will  preserve  infants  from  poison  and  from 
many  ills.*  The  phenomenon  was  then  sui  generis ; 
Electricity,  otherwise  unknown,  was  thought  to  be 
inherent  in  the  nature  of  amber,  and,  as  an  occult 
force,  was  inexplicable.  Its  connection  with  light- 
ning was  not  dreamed  of.  Nearly  thirty  centuries 
had  to  pass  away  before  men  knew  that  the  force 
they  felt  and  saw  was  in  the  ambient  air  and  ether; 
amber  was  only  the  vehicle  for  its  manifestation. 

Optical  phenomena  offer  many  such  instances. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  the  rainbow  was  considered  to 
be  a  miracle.  The  writer  of  Genesis  ix.  14  states : 
"  When  there  is  a  cloud  over  the  earth  the  bow  shall 
be  seen  in  the  cloud."  The  original  Chaldea-Baby- 
lonian  legend  poetically  describes  it :  "Afar  off,  ap- 

*  T.  Moore  sings  of  "  The  loveliest  amber  that  ever  the  sorrowing 
sea-bird  has  wept."  The  sisters  of  Meleager  wept  so  bitterly  over 
their  brother's  death  that  Artemis  changed  them  into  birds. 

303 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLbTION 

preaching,  the  great  Goddess  raised  the  great  zones 
which  Anii  made  for  their  glory."  By  all  men  the 
objective  existence  of  the  rainbow  was  believed  in. 
Descartes,  at  the  suggestion  of  M.  A.  de  Dominis,* 
further  studied  and  established  the  true  theory  of  the 
apparent  position  and  shape  of  the  bow.  Newton's 
discovery  of  the  prismatic  colors  completed  the 
knowledge  of  the  fact  that  it  had  a  subjective  existence 
only  and  relegated  its  phenomena  to  the  study  of  "  The 
Physics  of  the  Ether." 

It  is  hard  to  realize  in  our  consciousness,  although 
we  well  know  that  it  is  the  fact,  that  the  beautiful 
colors  of  the  world  around  us  exist  only  on  our  retina, 
or  in  the  nervous  tissue  of  our  brain.  .  The  vibrations 
of  the  Ether  carry  the  compound  or  white  rays  of 
light ;  they  are  broken  up  by  objects  around  us,  as 
they  are  in  the  raindrop,  some  absorbed  and  some  re- 
flected. The  colored  object  seen  has  itself  only  the 
structural  mechanism  that  separate  the  beam  of  white 
light  into  the  colored  rays,  its  components.  The 
colors  are  in  the  Ether  movements  only;  without 
them  all  objects  in  the  world  would  be  colorless  and 
dark. 

*  Marc  Antoine  de  Dominis,  a  Jesuit  priest,  1566-1624,  was  arrested 
for  heresy  and  imprisoned  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  where  he  died 
a  few  months  afterward.  His  trial  was  continued  after  his  death  by 
the  Inquisition.  He  was  convicted,  his  body  disinterred  and  burned 
on  the  Campo  dei  Fiori,  where  Giordano  Bruno  had  been  burned 
alive  twenty-five  years  before. 

304 


THE  MECHANISM  ONLY  OF  LIFE 

Thus  should  we  look  upon  the  phenomena  of  life : 
The  living  creature,  plant  or  animal  is  a  mechanism 
for  transforming  other  forms  of  energy  into  that  form 
called  Life.  In  its  lowest  and  simplest  form,  so  far 
as  our  senses  or  our  knowledge  can  inform  us,  the 
creature  is  without  differentiation  of  parts  or  organs ; 
is  only  a  congeries  of  molecules,  formed  from  a  few 
chemical  atoms :  carbon,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
sulphur  and  phosphorus,  that  make  a  substance  called 
plasmodium,  producable  only  by  inheritance  from  a 
pre-existing,  similar,  living  creature.  It  has  not  neces- 
sarily any  structure  or  difference  of  parts  within  it- 
self, but  has,  even  in  its  simplest  form,  the  potentiality 
or  capacity  of  serving  as  the  medium  by  which  the 
energy  of  the  Ether  is  transformed  into  new  forms, 
among  which  are  sensation,  consciousness  and  volition. 

The  potentiality  of  life  seems  to  exist  physically 
apart  from  the  activity  of  life  itself  in  the  spores  of 
the  lower  forms,  and  even  in  the  seeds  of  the  higher 
plants.  If  kept  dry  and  cool,  the  latter  can  be  pre- 
served unchanged  for  many  years.  The  germs  of 
many  of  the  Bacteria  will  withstand  uninjured  a 
temperature  somewhat  above  that  of  boiling  water, 
and  will  afterwards  develop  into  life  under  lower 
temperatures  and  favorable  conditions  with  their  pe-# 
culiar  and  morbific  properties  unchanged.  This  per- 
sistence of  life,  or  rather  the  continuance  of  the 
20  305 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

potentiality  thereof,  has  been  and  is  even  yet  the  sup- 
port of  the  adherents  to  the  doctrine  of  Spontaneous 
Generation.  They  thought  that  in  their  experiments 
they  had  destroyed  the  germs  of  life  in  destroying 
existing  life  itself. 

The  after  vitality  of  the  seeds  of  even  the  higher 
plants  when  exposed  to  excessive  cold  has  long  been 
known.  It  is,  though,  only  within  the  year — 1898 
— that  the  availability  of  liquid  air  has  made  it  pos- 
sible to  submit  the  seeds  of  barley,  oats,  peas,  sun- 
flower and  other  plants  to  the  low  temperature  of 
—295°-— 313°  F.,  or  nearly  340  degrees  below  the 
freezing  point  of  water;  now — 1902— even  still 
lower,  to  that  of  solid  hydrogen,  within  24°  F.  of 
the  absolute  zero,  with  the  same  result. 

Inasmuch  as  Life  is  an  existence  dependent  upon 
certain  changes  of  energy  continually  occurring  in 
the  organism  of  living  plants  or  animals,  the  term 
alive  is  not  logically  or  scientifically  applicable  to  a 
structure  wherein  no  change  whatever  of  energy  or 
of  composition  occurs  for  a  very  long  and  indefinite 
period. 

These  properties  of  withstanding  the  extremes  of 
temperature  by  the  germs  of  life  that  would  be  in- 
stantly fatal  to  life  itself  countenance  the  thought 
that,  in  plants  at  least,  the  structure  of  the  germ  con- 
sists of  molecules  of  the  chemical  atoms  united  only 
306 


THE  POTENCY  ONLY  OF  LIFE 

by  simple  chemical  affinity,  such  as  exist  in  inorganic 
bodies,  or  in  the  derivatives  of  organic  life,  the 
glycerides,  or  some  forms  of  the  albuminoids.  These 
latter,  if  anhydrous,  would  sustain  no  change  if  all 
the  etherial  vibrations  called  heat  were  withdrawn, 
even  to  the  absolute  zero,  and  would  bear  unharmed 
a  temperature  near  to  that  of  boiling  water.  The 
ultimate  cell  germ,  though  not  living  itself,  retains 
unchanged  for  years  and  years  its  potentiality  of  re- 
sponding to  the  etherial  vibrations  that  convey  heat 
and  light,  and  that  confer  then  upon  the  organic 
structure  the  mystery  of  life.  The  germs  of  animal 
life  seem  to  possess,  though  in  a  lesser  degree,  the 
same  dormant  potentiality.  In  viviparous  animals 
such  persistence  is  of  course  unnecessary,  since  the 
conditions  for  life  are  ever  present  and  never  with- 
drawn. The  eggs  of  the  oviparous  vertebrata  possess 
their  future  food  in  the  form  of  liquid  albuminoids, 
that  a  temperature  even  far  below  the  boiling  point 
would  harden  and  render  useless.  The  necessary 
water  for  change  of  living  structure  and  tissue  for- 
mation is  present  in  proper  quantity  from  the  be- 
ginning, and  cannot  be  subsequently  added  to  even  if 
needed.  Extreme  cold  that  would  solidify  aqueous 
compounds  by  freezing  must  necessarily  be  destruc- 
tive. It  is  remarkable,  though,  what  low  temperatures 
can  be  borne  with  impunity  by  the  eggs  even  of 
307 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

birds,  highly  organized  animals  as  they  are.  They 
will  sustain  without  freezing  and  uninjured  for  some 
time  a  temperature  but  a  few  degrees  above  zero  F. 
The  experiment  has  not  been  tried,  so  far  as  is  known, 
of  testing  the  viability  of  the  eggs  of  insects  after 
subjection  to  the  low  temperature  of  liquid  air.  The 
farmers,  however,  in  the  Northwestern  States  of  our 
country  know  by  painful  and  costly  experience 
that  the  eggs  of  caterpillars  and  other  destructive 
scourges  of  vegetation  readily  survive  the  almost  arctic 
weather  of  30  to  50  degrees  below  zero  F. 

In  plants,  as  already  has  been  described,  spon- 
taneous motion  occurs  in  the  algae  and  others  of  the 
lower  orders  ;  in  the  higher  orders,  with  the  excep- 
tions noted,  it  is  restricted  to  the  circulation  of  the 
plasma  in  the  tubular  cells  of  the  plants.  In  the 
lower  orders  the  motion  named  presents  every  evi- 
dence of  being  caused  by  sensation,  consciousness  and 
volition ;  all  limited  and  vague,  but  clearly  demon- 
strable. The  unnecessary  substitution  of  the  proper- 
ties of  the  term  chemie-taxia,  proposed  by  Metchni- 
koff,  for  apparently  the  volitional  motion  of  the 
Amoeba,  Bacteria  and  Leucocytes,  only  introduces  a 
new,  obscure  and  unknown  cause  of  action  of  which 
we  know  absolutely  nothing,  to  explain  that  of  which 
we  know  something,  though,  it  is  true,  not  very 
much. 

308 


SYNTHESIS 'AND  EVOLUTION 

The  processes  of  evolution  have  not  increased  in 
plants  the  development  of  what  may  be  called  the 
mental  forces  of  nature.  The  tendency  of  the  roots 
of  growing  plants  towards  water,  the  grasping  of  the 
tendrils  of  a  vine  for  the  support  needed  for  its 
growth,  the  varied  phenomena  of  florescence  and  re- 
production, indicate  no  more  of  volition  than  the  pro- 
tococus  or  vaucheria  have  shown.  The  functions  to 
be  carried  on  in  the  plant  world,  that  of  preparing 
food,  liberating  oxygen,  and  of  thus  rendering  animal 
life  possible  by  their  previous  existence,  need  no  ad- 
dition of  increased  duties  or  higher  faculties  than  we 
find  plants  gifted  with. 

The  processes  of  plant  life  are  essentially  syn- 
thetical. They  form  from  the  inorganic  molecules 
of  the  soil  air  and  water,  those  compounds  of  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  other  elements  which,  when  reunited, 
make  the  plasmodium,  tissues  and  fluids  of  cellular 
structures  that  constitute  the  food  of  animals.  They 
give  out  to  the  air  the  oxygen  they  have  set  free  from 
its  chemical  union  with  carbon  and  with  hydrogen  to 
become  later  the  source  of  breathing  for  all  animal 
life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  metamorphoses  in  the 
animal  are  essentially  the  opposite,  the  retrogressive 
and  oxidizing,  whereby  one  part  of  the  tissues  and 
substances  formed  in  the  animal  from  the  food  pre- 
pared by  plant  life  runs  down  the  plane  of  organiza- 

309 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tion,  forming  again  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  during 
which  action  the  energy  thus  liberated  raises  other 
parts  to  the  higher  plane  of  life's  phenomena,  to  the 
functional  exercise  of  the  various  organs  of  the 
body,  "and  to  the  manfestation  of  consciousness  and 
will. 

Thus  the  lowest  forms  of  life — the  Monera  of 
Haeckle — have  parted  upon  their  separate  paths.  One 
form,  whose  destiny  it  is  to  become  the  plant,  the 
food  provider,  the  ultimate  mother  of  energy  to  all 
who  will  have  consciousness  in  life,  will  remain  itself 
as  little  conscious,  or  even  less  so,  than  before.  The 
other,  whose  paths  will  divide,  redivide  and  subdivide 
again  and  again,  on  land,  in  water  and  in  the  air;to 
whom  the  mechanism  has  been  or  will  be  given  in 
its  brain  to  bring  into  being  part  of  that  energy  as 
thought  and  will  that  existed  in  the  source  from 
whence  all  came; will  lead  a  life  of  exertion,  of  care 
and  trouble,  of  pleasure  and  of  pain. 

The  course  of  evolution,  from  the  lower  creature 
to  the  higher  one,  requires  the  exercise  of  all  the 
faculties.  Hunger  must  be  felt  by  animals  and  food 
must  be  sought  for;  at  first  an  easy  task,  but  as 
numbers  increase  more  and  more  difficult.  Starva- 
tion and  disease  would  thin  their  numbers,  but  in 
doing  so  all  would  suffer  and  the  race  deteriorate. 
The  introduction  of  the  Carnivora  saves  from  this 
310 


SYNTHESIS  AND  EVOLUTION 

end,  and  procures  a  rapid  and  easy  death  to  some  of 
them,  that  checks  the  increase  without  injury  to  the 
race  surviving. 

Ages  pass  away !  Those  descendants  from  the 
distant  past  in  whom  evolution  has  reached  a  per- 
manent type  best  suited  to  their  environment  pre- 
serve their  type  unaltered.  It  is  probable  no  change 
could  improve  the  beauty  of  form,  the  strength  of 
limb,  or  the  speed  and  action  of  the  horse  ;  the 
combination  of  strength  of  wing  and  lightness  of 
structure  in  the  bird ;  or  the  fitness  of  the  dolphin 
for  the  water  in  which  it  lives.  Many  creatures,  vast 
in  form  and  strength,  that  lived  in  times  long  gone 
exist  no  longer.  Others  have  supplanted  them,  bet- 
ter fitted  for  their  place.  Modification  of  the  muscles, 
internal  organs  and  of  outward  form  seem  at  last  to 
have  reached  that  point  when  change  could  not 
bring  further  improvement. 

3" 


CHAPTER  XXV 

EVOLUTION  OF  MAN — HUXLEY'S  VIEW — HAECKEL/S 
VIEW — LANGUAGE,  WRITING,  PRINTING — EVO- 
LUTION AND  EMBRYOLOGY — THE  MANIFESTATION 
OF  HIM  IN  WHOM  WE  LIVE  AND  MOVE  AND 
HAVE  OUR  BEING. 

THE  course  of  evolution  has  been  very  slow. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  centuries  have  come  and 
gone  since  our  globe  separated  from  the  vaporous 
mass  that  then  constituted  the  sun  and  the  inner 
planets — thousands  of  centuries  since  the  earth  be- 
came cool  enough  to  permit  the  first  life  in  any  form 
thereon.  Then,  as  the  earth  grew  older,  plant  and 
animal  life  rose  higher  and  higher  in  their  order  of 
being,  unchecked  even  by  the  glacial  ages  that  for 
long  periods  drove  all  life  far  south  of  its  former 
home. 

Prior  to  this  glacial  era  a  change  took  place  in 
the  line  of  evolution.  The  bodily  forms  and  func- 
tions, or  what  should  be  called  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  life,  had  reached  nearly  the  limit  of 
present  development,  the  construction  of  the  or- 

212 


EVOLUTION  OF  MAN 

gans  in  the  highest  order — the  Mammalia — being 
then,  as  now,  essentially  the  same  in  all.  From  some 
unknown  parent  form,  so  far  as  we  know,  now  ex- 
tinct, came  several  lines  of  descent ;  from  some  of 
them  arose  the  anthropoid  apes,  the  gorilla,  ourang 
outang,  etc.;  from  another  branch  Ancestral  Man. 

Huxley  thinks  this  common  ancestor  was  a  Pro- 
simian  or  Lemur,  graniverous  or  frugivorous,  and 
arboreal  in  its  habits.  The  Lemurs  are  represented 
now  only  by  a  few  forms  found  in  some  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  Madagascar  and  the  Sunda  Islands.  Haeckel 
does  not  go  so  far  back  for  man's  origin,  and  defines 
him  as  a  "Decidual  discoplacental,  or  catarrhine 
ape/'  with  fur,  and  arboreal  habits  as  before  de- 
scribed. 

The  Simian  or  Ape-like  descendants  remained  un- 
changed ;  they  followed  the  general  course  of  in- 
heritance, and  are  now  what  practically  they  were 
then.  It  is  seen  from  the  above  that  Haeckel  differs 
from  Huxley  in  considering  the  true  apes  our  direct 
ancestors,  rather  than  that  there  was  a  common  an- 
cestor more  remote,  the  anatomical  structure  of  the 
placenta  in  apes,  as  it  is  in  man,  especially  leading 
the  former  to  that  conclusion. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  divergence  of  the  two  lines 
of  descent  became  wider  and  wider.  While  the 
apes  followed  the  laws  of  general  heredity,  with  the 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

usual  occasional  divergences  therefrom,  that  gave  rise 
to  varieties  and  species  among  the  Simian  as  among 
other  families,  their  relative,  the  immediate  ancestor 
of  Man,  experienced  a  change  not  only  in  the  degree 
but  in  the  kind  of  Evolution.  When  this  time  was 
it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  say,  but  it  is  known 
to  be  within,  if  not  before,  the  last  glacial  period. 
It  is  believed  by  many  that  man  existed  as  man  cer- 
tainly as  early  as  the  pliocene  period  of  the  Tertiary. 
This  period  was  thousands  of  centuries  ago — a  short 
time  only  in  the  infinitude  of  the  past,  but  almost  a 
past  infinity  compared  to  our  own  short,  individual 
lives. 

Haeckel  considers  man  descended  from  one  species, 
the  catarrhine  or  thin-nosed  apes,  and  believes  Southern 
Asia  was  its  native  home.  He  thinks  it  not  improb- 
able that  a  continent  then  existed  embracing  Mada- 
gascar, the  Sunda  Isles,  and  approaching  or  joining 
the  south  of  Asia  and  the  southeastern  shores  of 
Africa.  This  possible  continent,  which  he  thought 
was  man's  probable  birthplace,  if  it  ever  existed,  is 
now  sunk  beneath  the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Here,  he  thought,  might  have  been  found  fossilized 
the  "  Missing  Link,"  the  transition  step  between  the 
highest  ape  and  the  lowest  form  of  savage  man. 
Geologically,  this  might  be  possible,  for  the  age  re- 
ferred to,  the  Tertiary,  was  the  time  of  the  elevation 


EVOLUTION  OF  MAN 

of  great  mountain  chains,  in  some  parts  of  the  north 
over  20,000  feet  in  height.  As  this  wrinkling  of 
the  earth's  crust  has  been  caused  by  its  contrac- 
tion and  doubling  upwards  in  some  places,  thus 
forming  the  mountains,  other  corresponding  depres- 
sions must  occur  in  other  places,  involving  a  subsi- 
dence of  extensive  portions  of  land  beneath  the 
waters.  Scientific  investigation,  however,  has  not 
confirmed  his  theory.  No  corroboration  thereof  has 
been  found  in  deep-sea  soundings  that  such  a 
plateau  or  continent  in  the  region  described  had  ever 
existed. 

The  structural  evolution  of  the  body  of  man  must 
have  kept  pace — pari  passu — with  such  modifica- 
tion of  his  brain  as  enabled  it  to  receive  and  respond 
to  that  higher  form  of  energy  that  slowly  raised  its 
owner  from  the  original  level  of  brute  consciousness 
and  volition  into  that  of  the  intelligence  and  will  of 
the  human  being,  even  though  that  being  was  but  a 
savage  of  the  lowest  type.  Heretofore  the  prosperity 
of  the  individual  animal  and  the  continuance  of 
its  race  depended  mainly  upon  the  perfection  of  its 
bodily  organs,  the  strength  or  swiftness  of  limb  or 
wing,  and  the  general  muscular  force  that  enabled  it 
to  capture  its  prey  or  defend  itself  against  the  attack 
of  others.  The  race  then  had  been  to  the  swift  and 
the  battle  to  the  strong.  The  new  line  of  evolution 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

changed  this.  Man,  naked,  weak,  and  born  without 
weapons  of  offence  or  defence,  deteriorated,  physically, 
in  his  merely  brutal  powers  from  those  of  his  ances- 
tors. He  was  forced  to  leave  the  shelter  and  safety 
of  his  arboreal  existence  by  his  increasing  unfitness 
for  that  life  and  his  greater  adaptation  for  life  on  the 
open  land.  The  very  existence  of  his  race  was  threat- 
ened, and  seemed  destined  to  be  ended.  With  the 
greater  intelligence  that  improvement  in  his  brain 
made  available,  he  learned  how  to  keep  himself  from 
cold,  to  contrive  means  and  implements  to  defend 
himself,  to  destroy  his  enemies  and  to  kill  his  prey ; 
for  Man  had  become  a  carniverous,  or,  at  least,  an 
omniverous,  animal,  in  place  of  living  only  on  fruits, 
seeds,  eggs  and  insects  as  his  Simian  or  even  Troglo- 
dyte relatives  had  done.  The  increase  of  brain  prob- 
ably needed  more  nitrogenous  food  to  keep  up  its 
growth  and  develop  its  faculties.  The  discovery  of 
the  use  of  fire,  and  the  way  to  obtain  and  preserve  it, 
must  have  modified  the  course  of  his  whole  life. 

To  what  extent  the  modification  of  the  Simian 
type  had  taken  place,  and  at  what  time  relatively 
thereto  the  power  of  speech  was  evolved,  is  a  problem 
upon  which  little  light  can  be  thrown.  It  is  pre- 
sumed that  as  nearly  all  the  Simian  race  are  gregarious 
(excepting  the  gorilla,  which  is  polygamous  only) 

316 


EVOLUTION  OF  SPEECH 

they  were  able  to  communicate  their  wants  in  some 
manner  to  each  other. 

The  Chimpanzees  and  onrang  outangs,  though 
more  human-like  in  size,  have  less  power  of  vocal  ut- 
terance than  the  Gibbons ;  the  Hylobates  Lar  possess 
loud  and  powerful  voices,  but  their  utterances  are 
those  of  musical  intervals,  not  articulate  sounds.  The 
efforts  of  R.  L.  Garner,  K  Y.,  1892,  to  interpret  the 
vocal  sounds  made  by  the  above  species  into  language 
indicative  of  their  emotions  or  their  their  wants,  and 
to  repeat  the  same  to  them  again  by  means  of  the 
phonograph,  have  failed  so  far  of  success.  The 
Hanuman  (Semnopithecus)  or  Sacred  Monkey  of  the 
Hindoos,  as  well  as  the  Hylobates  above-mentioned, 
though  smaller  and  differing  widely  from  the  human 
form,  yet  possess  a  higher  order  of  intelligence  than 
those  of  the  races  Gorilla,  Chimpanzee,  etc.,  who  out- 
wardly nearer  approach  to  man.  In  the  Gorilla, 
especially,  it  would  seem  as  if  the  process  of  evolution 
had  expended  itself  in  developing  the  perfection  of 
muscular  strength  at  the  expense  of  all  other  physical 
and  mental  attributes. 

With,  the  development  of  speech  the  existence  of 
true  man  (Homo  Sapiens)  began.  Language  at  first 
probably  consisted  of  ejaculations  only,  possibly 
such  as  his  progenitors  had  possessed,  but  now  used 
and  understood  in  a  definite  and  restricted  sense. 

317 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

The  difficulty  in  using  articulate  language  would  lie 
in  the  capacity  of  the  brain  to  co-ordinate  the  produc- 
tion of  a  certain  sound  with  the  identity  of  the  thing 
or  purpose  desired ;  not  merely  in  the  capacity  of  the 
vocal  organs  or  power  of  articulation.  When 
this  co-ordination  of  desire,  will  and  utterance  was 
once  established,  man  could  speak.  The  further 
perfection  of  language  would  be  the  work  of  practice 
and  of  time  alone. 

After  the  attainment  of  speech,  countless  centuries 
must  again  have  passed  away,  even  to  times  historic, 
before  the  art  of  writing  was  acquired.  Many  savage 
tribes  are  even  yet  without  it.  The  Epics  of  War 
and  of  Mythology  found  vocal  expression  and  long 
continuance  of  life  in  the  cultivated  memories  of  the 
Thracian  poets,  the  Greek  Rhapsodists,  the  Scalds 
of  Scandinavia  and  the  Bards  of  Cymri  and  of  Bre- 
tagne.  In  these  epics,  transmitted  orally  and  chanted 
or  sung,  the  poetic  form  and  rythm  preserved  with 
wonderful  accuracy  from  generation  to  generation  the 
memory  of  real  or  of  imaginary  deeds,  until  in  long 
after  years  they  were  committed  to  writing.  In  this 
way  a  few  of  the  brightest  thoughts  from  the  distant 
past  have  reached  us :  all  else  died  with  or  soon  after 
the  brains  that  gave  them  birth. 

When  writing  was  perfected,  and  records  of  past 
thoughts  and  acts  existed  so  as  to  be  preserved 


WRITING   AND  PRINTING 

indefinitely,  the  knowledge  that  the  mind  had  ac- 
quired, no  longer  died  with  the  memory  of  him  who 
had  possessed  it.  To  the  knowledge  gained  in  one 
man's  life,  could  now  be  added  that  which  was  best 
worth  preserving,  left  by  many  of  those  who  had  gone 
before  him.  Tn  this  way  the  short  span  of  life 
granted  to  man,  has  been  extended  both  backward 
and  forward,  since  he  can  learn  from  those  who  have 
long  been  dead,  and  can  teach  to  others  yet  unborn. 

The  last  four  centuries  have  witnessed  the  dis- 
covery and  the  general  practice  of  the  art  of  printing; 
to  this  invention  is  due  the  wide  dissemination  of 
knowledge,  and  the  subsequent  downfall  of  much 
ignorance  and  superstition  in  Europe  and  in  the 
Western  World — beginning  with  the  downfall  of 
Scholasticism  and  the  false  philosopohy  that  it 
taught. 

The  evolution  of  the  species  of  animals,  through 
slight  modifications  of  the  laws  of  heredity,  from  the 
simplest  non-structural  plasmoid,  to  higher  and 
higher  organisms  with  increased  functional  capacities 
until  Man  is  reached,  has  required  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  years.  Strange  as  this  procedure  of  evolu- 
tion may  seem  to  us,  it  finds  strong  corroboration 
and  an  analogy  in  the  life-history  of  each  individual 
animal,  most  strongly  of  all  in  that  of  man.  Em- 
bryology teaches  that  human  life  begins,  as  all  other 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

life  does,  in  the  fertilized,  almost  microscopic,  cell, 
without  visible  difference  between  it  and  the  corre- 
sponding germ  cell  of  other  mammalia.  This  cell, 
at  first  about  ^0  qf  an  inch  in  diameter,  as  it  grows, 
divides  and  redivides,  as  an  amoeba  might  do;  then 
a  grouping  of  these  cells  into  a  long,  narrow  disk  that 
folds  over  into  a  tube-like  shape,  marks  the  com- 
mencement of  the  spinal  marrow.  The  form  thus 
made,  the  lowest  vertebrate,  the  "Amphioxus,"  per- 
manently retains.  The  further  metamorphoses  are 
essentially  similar  to  those  described  in  the  hatching 
of  a  fowl's  egg,  the  embryo  as  it  matures  passing 
successively  through  stages  in  which  it  is  nearly  un- 
distinguishable  from  the  embryo  of  a  fish,  tortoise, 
chicken,  dog  or  other  vertebrate  in  relatively  the  same 
stage  of  development.  The  length  of  embryonic  life 
being  so  much  longer  in  man  than  in  the  above- 
named  vertebrates,  the  similarity  referred  to  continues 
so  much  the  longer  in  the  advancing  stages,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  nearer  resemblance  to  him  in  their 
general  structure.  The  birth  of  every  man  is  thus  a 
type  of  his  evolution  through  long  past  ages. 

When  born,  man,  is  of  all  animals,  the  least  de- 
veloped and  the  most  helpless.  Without  even  the 
power  of  moving,  with  less  apparent  intelligence 
than  an  Ascidian,  he  is  dependent  more  than  any 
other  animal,  for  many  months  for  life  itself,  abso- 

320 


EMBRYOLOGY  AND  EVOLUTION 

lutely,  upon  a  mother's  care.  For  more  than  a  year 
he  is  less  advanced  than  a  puppy  is  when  nine  days 
old.  He  has  entered  this  life  with  the  potency  of  in- 
tellect only.  His  brain  will  slowly  absorb  with  his 
breath  and  from  his  food  the  energy  contained 
therein ;  the  energy,  reacting  on  its  instrument  the 
brain,  may  in  time  fit  it  to  call  forth  the  highest  man- 
ifestations of  this  protean  power  that  this  world  can 
know.  Consciousness,  perception  and  volition  grad- 
ually appear,  until,  after  the  growth  and  education  by 
the  life  around  him,  for  nearly  twenty  years,  the  men- 
tal and  physical  development  of  the  youth  may  be 
thought  to  be  complete.  He  has  individually  passed 
through  changes  that  his  race  required  countless  cen- 
turies to  accomplish.  But  so  long  as  man  lives,  if 
his  life  be  well  spent,  until  disease  or  old  age  prevents, 
his  mental  evolution  may  continue. 

The  progress  of  modern  science,  even  as  roughly 
sketched  out  in  the  preceding  pages,  has  fully  estab- 
lished the  fact  that  the  infinite  range  of  phenom- 
ena, both  in  the  inorganic  and  the  organic  world,  are 
the  manifestations  of  forces,  working  not  by  irregular, 
uncertain,  or  capricious  acts,  but  by  definite,  certain 
and  unchangeable  laws.  Under  the  same  conditions 
and  under  the  same  forces  the  same  results  will 
always  follow.  It  is  further  shown  that  the  proper- 
ties of  all  parts  of  nature,  or  what  is  called  matter, 
21  321 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

are  related  in  such  a  manner  that  they  are  subject  to 
the  same  laws — that  they  are  alike  incapable  of  anni- 
hilation, or  of  being  formed  by  man  for  nothing. 
The  study  of  the  manifold  manifestations  of  energy, 
through  whose  action  all  phenomena  appear,  has 
shown  that  all  are  but  the  protean,  or  ever  changing 
forms  of  one  inscrutable,  unknown  power,  everywhere 
existing,  uncreatable  and  indestructible;  without 
which  there  can  be  no  motion,  and  which  is  the 
source  and  cause  of  all  motion.  Through  it  are  pro- 
duced and  by  it  only  exist  what  we  know  as  Heat, 
Light,  Electricity,  Physical  Motion,  Chemical  Action, 
Life  in  plants  and  in  animals,  Sensation,  Conscious- 
ness and  Volition.  The  intelligence  that  is  manifested 
in  the  reason  of  man  is  brought  by  it,  for  beyond 
this  power  is  the  intelligence  of  the  Omniscient  that 
rules  the  Universe. 

This  protean  Energy  finds  its  simplest  expression 
in  the  Cosmic  Ether  that  penetrates  this  world  and 
extends  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Stellar  Universe. 
It  is  the  carrier  from  the  Sun  to  us  of  Heat,  Light, 
Electricity,  and  of  all  the  phenomena  of  Life.  All 
we  know  of  it,  is  what  it  brings  to  us.  Of  the  ab- 
solute nature  of  the  Energy  in  the  Ether  and  in  the 
Universe  we  know  little  or  nothing.  The  VOLITION 
that  is  back  of  it  and  of  other  phenomena  is  only 
known  to  us  as  that  FIRST  CAUSE  that  is  the 

322 


THE  FIRST  CAUSE 

origin  and  sustainer  of  all  things ;  that  has  no  limit  in 
time  or  space ;  that  is  throughout  the  universe,  and  yet 
in  all  things  and  in  all  beings.  It  is  through  the  In- 
telligence thus  made  manifest  in  His  works  that  our 
finite  and  limited  reason  may  hope,  and  does  hope, 
better  to  know  the  source  whence  it  came,  the  giver 
thereof,  and  of  all  good — to  know  that  it  is  God  ! 

323 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

ALL  ULTIMATE  CAUSES  INCOMPREHENSIBLE — UN- 
KNOWN NATURE  OF  CHEMICAL  AFFINITY — 
AN  OVERRULING  POWER,  KNOWN  IN  ITS  WORKS 
— THE  MIND  CONCEIVES  ITS  OWN  SEMBLANCE 
ONLY — THE  PROBLEMS  OF  SIN  AND  DEATH — 
THE  ANSWER  OF  EVOLUTION. 

IT  has  been  shown  that  in  every  phenomenon  the 
final  and  ultimate  nature  of  the  energy  involved,  lies 
beyond  the  comprehension  of  the  human  mind.  For 
instance,  what  is  the  action  that  constitutes  Chemical 
Affinity?  The  ultimate  atoms  that  are  the  subject 
of  this  force,  and  which  constitute  by  their  union  our 
physical  frames  and  all  the  varieties  of  matter,  are 
they  self-existing  and  essentially  independent  in  their 
intrinsic  nature?  Are  they  the  molecular  groupings 
of  one  primordial  dement — of  the  ultimate  atoms  of 
the  Ether  ?  Or,  finally,  are  they  only  the  centres  of 
force,  without  other  existence  than  their  own  internal 
energies ;  that  differ  as  the  vibrations  of  the  rays  of 
light  do,  one  from  another,  and  thus  varying  in  their 
expression  of  force  manifest  the  affinities  of  each 

324 


ULTIMATE   CAUSES  UNKNOWN 

chemical  substance  ?  Many  strange  relations  that  are 
found  to  exist  in  Chemistry  might  find  in  the  last 
surmise  their  explanation.  The  discoveries  of  Science 
are  tending  to  break  down  the  dividing  barriers  be- 
tween Physics  and  Chemistry,  throwing  the  two  realms 
of  energy  into  one.  But  the  nature  of  the  force — 
Chemical  Affinity — under  any  view,  is  equally  in- 
comprehensible. The  inherent  nature  of  Matter,  in- 
stead of  being  ignoble  and  degrading  as  Scholasti- 
cism taught,  is  thus  shown  to  be  as  transcendental  as 
that  of  the  mind  itself,  to  the  human  intelligence. 

In  the  study  of  each  phenomenon,  of  abstract 
existence,  such  as  space,  time,  motion,  energy  and  life, 
the  limit  of  comprehension  is  soon  reached ;  that 
borderland  of  thought  beyond  which  every  alterna- 
tive that  offers  is  alike  unthinkable.  The  mind  re- 
coils, baffled  as  by  an  impenetrable  cloud  that  veils 
the  Inscrutable  within.  In  all  times  and  among  all 
nations  the  existence  of  an  overruling  power  has  been 
acknowledged.  That  power,  the  Absolute,  the  Un- 
conditioned, GOD,  we  can  never  know,  at  least  not  in 
this  life,  and  of  the  life  beyond  we  yet  know  nothing. 
The  partial  manifestations  of  his  thoughts  and  deeds 
are  before  us  to  study  and  to  know  in  the  world 
around  us.  Our  own  mind  or  intellect  is  one  of  its 
highest  objects  of  study,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  its  faculties  are  limited — that  it  can  do  nothing 

325 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

and  know  nothing  in  regard  to  that  which  lies  be- 
yond its  own  limitations.  It  should  be  studied  ob- 
jectively— the  workings  of  other  men's  minds  rather 
than  our  own.  The  doctrine  of  Aristotle  and  of  the 
Scholastics  that  "  whatever  is  possible  to  exist  does 
exist,"  led  naturally  to  the  consequent  belief  that 
"  all  that  exists  in  thought  must  exist  in  fact,"  and 
gave  to  subjective  suggestion  an  objective  reality. 
The  Metaphysician,  believing  that  the  idea  of  each 
and  of  all  things  existed  before,  beyond  and  apart 
from  each  thing  itself,  transferred  the  idea  of  the 
highest  attributes  of  human  intelligence  and  will  to 
the  idea  of  an  Omnipotent  and  Omniscient  Being, 
free  from  the  limitations  of  power,  space  and  time 
that  restrict  man,  but  otherwise  in  the  likeness  of  man. 
To  him  and  to  the  Theologian  of  old  the  Creator 
and  Sustainer  of  all  things  was  an  anthropomorphic 
being,  moved  by  the  emotions  that  move  man,  and 
governing  both  in  the  phenomena  of  this  world  and 
in  all  that  concerns  man's  welfare,  temporal  and 
eternal,  in  an  inconstant,  capricious  and  uncertain 
manner.  The  evils  of  life,  whether  physical,  such  as 
earthquakes,  floods,  tempests,  plague,  pestilence  and 
famine ;  or  personal  sorrows,  trials  and  death  itself, 
were  looked  upon  as  punishments  sent  in  revenge  for 
national  crimes  or  individual  sins — the  latter  often 

326 


THE  MIND   CONCEIVES  ITSELF  ONLY 

having  no  connection  with  the  evil,  under  which  the 
guilty  and  the  innocent  alike  suffered. 

This  idea  of  the  Creator  and  Ruler  of  the  world, 
though  always  anthropomorphic,  differed  in  its  at- 
tributes with  the  different  minds  that  thought.  Like 
the  familiar,  half-mythical  Spectre  of  the  Brocken,  in 
the  Hartz  Mountains,  each  observer  sees  in  the  mists 
before  him,  an  image,  vague  and  indistinct,  but  super- 
human in  size  and  shape ;  yet  to  none  is  it  the  same. 
To  one  it  may  appear  as  a  stern,  austere  figure,  clad 
in  the  dark,  scholastic  robe  of  a  Genevan  Doctor ;  to 
another  that  of  a  barefooted,  rope-girdled  monk, 
and  to  a  third  that  of  a  light  and  graceful  image  of 
innocent  youth  and  beauty.  Each  sees  only  the  pro- 
jected shadow  of  himself.  The  first,  sees  only  pre- 
destination and  exacting  justice ;  the  second,  abnega- 
tion of  life's  duties  for  monastic  rule ;  the  third,  the 
promise  of  life  and  happiness  now  and  the  hope  of 
the  better  life  to  come. 

Our  own  thoughts  and  the  thoughts  of  others  can 
build  up  only  what  we  and  they  have  known — nec- 
essarily a  copy  on  an  enlarged  or  magnified  scale  of 
what  we  are.  So  long  as  men  looked  only  into  their 
own  minds  they  could  form  an  objective  idea  of  God 
solely  from  their  own  ideas,  subjectively  considered. 
To  view  the  Universe  as  an  evidence  of  the  nature  of 
God,  was  looked  upon  as  debasing  bv  the  Metaphysi- 
327 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

clan,  and  sacreligious  by  the  Theologian.     By  most 
of  them  it  is  to-day  still  so  considered. 

The  orthodox  teaching  of  the  Church  has  been, 
and  is  to-day,  that  Death  entered  the  world  in  con- 
sequence of  Sin.  Even  those  that  do  not  adhere  to 
the  acceptance,  literally,  of  the  myth  of  the  temptation 
and  fall  of  man,  yet  look  upon  Sin  as  an  absolute  ex- 
istence that  in  some  shape  needs  expiation,  and 
upon  Death  as  an  unmeasurable  evil  that  unneces- 
sarily enters  the  world — that  betrays  a  defect  in  the 
plan  of  creation,  at  least  so  far  as  man  is  concerned, 
They  dream  of  a  life  that  should  have  been  here  oil 
earth,  wherein  Sin  and  Death  might  never  enter.  To 
them,  and  to  most  men,  the  existence  of  evil  is  in- 
comprehensible. Why  should  the  God  of  Love,  Jus- 
tice and  Mercy  permit  pain  and  suffering  to  those 
who  do  no  wrong,  and  why  should  sin,  depravity  and 
wickedness,  riot  through  the  world,  rejoice  and  pros- 
per at  the  expense  of  the  innocent,  rob  them  of  their 
ownings  and  often  of  their  life  ?  If  Omniscient,  does 
He  not  know  it?  If  Omnipotent,  can  He  not  pre- 
vent it?  The  Hebrew  prophets  and  poets  asked 
these  questions.  Their  only  answer  was  :  It  was  the 
will  of  God  ;  do  good  and  avoid  evil  !  The  Zoroas- 
trians  believed  in  the  dual  principals  ;  Ahura  Mazda, 
the  author  of  all  good  ;  Ahriman,  the  author  of  all 
evil.  Early  and  Mediaeval  Christianity :  in  Original 

328 


SIN  AND  DEATH* 

Sin  ,  or  disobedience  to  God,  to  which  was  added  a 
vivid  belief  in  the  personification  of  evil — the  Devil. 
To  all  thinking  men  this  question  lies  ever  open  and 
unanswered.  The  object  of  most  religions  is  an 
attempt  to  answer  it ;  of  all,  to  point  out  a  method  to 
avoid  the  consequences  of  evil-doing  and  to  obtain  for- 
giveness for  the  evil  done.  It  is  not  to  be  expected 
that  man  should  ever  fully  comprehend  all  that  these 
questions  involve,  still  less  presume  to  answer  why 
God  has  thus  done.  All  that  man  can  do  is  to  strive 
to  know  what  has  been  done,  and  how  it  has  been  done. 
If  it  is  only  the  truth  that  is  sought  for  in  every 
step  of  the  search,  the  reason  why,  will  sometimes  also 
be  disclosed. 

If  it  is  asked  why  God  has  made  living  creatures  to 
suffer  and  to  die,  it  may  be  said  that  God  did  not  create 
the  world  or  its  animate  creatures  as  man  might 
create  a  watch.  God  is  the  life  of  the  Universe,  vast 
as  it  is,  and  lives  himself,  in  part,  in  the  life  of  each 
creature,  and  therefore  rejoices  in  its  joys,  and  sorrows 
in  its  sorrow.  His  laws,  made  for  all,  are  for  the 
good  of  all ;  but  to  the  individual  must  unavoidably 
often  give  pain  as  well  as  pleasure.  To  the  idealist, 
who  from  his  own  ideas  projected,  forms  the  idea  of 
God,  the  Omniscient  is  also  the  Omnipotent,  to  whom 
the  impossible  is  possible ;  who  can  by  his  fiat  change 

•*  •*•  v  c5 

all    things     at     will.       Science     does    not    pretend 

329 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

to  know  what  God  can  do  or  cannot  do ;  but 
the  observation  of  his  works  shows  that  he  does  not 
alter  the  workings  of  his  laws.  To  believe  that  the 
order  of  existence  should  be  different  from  what  we 
know  it  is,  because  man's  judgment  might  deem  it 
better  to  be  so,  may  be  very  natural ;  but  it  is  the 
judgment  and  the  wisdom  of  Ignorance.  We  know 
but  little  of  life  on  this  globe  and  nothing  of  life  else- 
where. All  we  do  know  is  that  all  things  are  gov- 
erned by  the  struggle  between  opposite  tendencies  and 
forces  that  work  for  the  general  good ;  the  power 
therein  is  limited  by  its  own  acts  •  that  which  is  best 
to  do  has  been  done  and  must  be  done,  though  the  in- 
dividual may  suffer. 

He  who  is  conversant  with  the  phenomena  of  Na- 
ture, whoever  has  read  the  slight  description  in  these 
pages  of  the  Path  of  Evolution,  must  be  conscious  of 
the  manner  in  which  each  phenomenon  is  interwoven 
with  and  dependent  upon  other  phenomena  of  wider 
and  deeper  generalization.  Thus  one  of  the  possibil- 
ities of  life  rests  upon  the  indispensable  presence  of 
liquid  water.  This  can  exist  as  such  only  within 
narrow  ranges  of  temperature,  and,  though  it  remains 
in  mass  unmoved  from  its  ocean  bed,  is  yet  carried  in 
vapor  in  the  shape  of  clouds,  that  turn  to  rain,  and  is 
scattered  over  the  thirsty  land  to  give  life's  blood  to 
the  growing  plants.  By  properties  peculiar  to  it  and 

330 


THE   TELEOLOGY  OF  SCIENCE 

different  from  those  found  in  other  fluids,  when  near 
the  freezing  point  it  becomes  lighter  as  it  becomes 
colder y  so  that  the  mass  of  coldest  water  keeps  near  the 
surface — becomes  covered  with  a  layer  of  ice  lighter 
than  itself — while  the  deeper  water  is  heavier  and  sev- 
eral degrees  warmer.  If  its  properties  a  little  below 
the  freezing  temperature  were  such  as  those  of  other 
fluids,  most  of  the  rivers  and  oceans  near  our  land 
would  freeze  solid  and  never  melt  again,  nor  would 
clouds  form,  or  rain  fall  on  the  dry  and  distant  land. 
Many  substances  like  Ice  are  lighter  when  solid  than 
when  fluid,  and  therefore  float,  but  no  other  liquid 
than  water  becomes  lighter  as  it  becomes  colder. 

The  relation  existing  between  vegetable  life  and 
animal  life,  by  which  the  former  draws  its  subsistence 
from  the  inorganic  world,  from  water,  carbon  dioxide 
and  the  soil,  giving  on  the  one  hand  the  food  that 
the  animal  must  have  but  cannot  make,  on  which  it 
subsists,  and  on  the  other  hand  the  oxygen,  only  by 
breathing  which  it  lives.  The  Ether,  bringing  heat, 
light  and  life  from  the  Sun ;  the  properties  of  the  air ; 
the  earth  ;  our  own  frames  wonderfully  made — all 
show  the  work  of  an  intelligence  that  rules  through- 
out, making  each  detail  a  consistent  part  of  all.  No 
healthful  and  unprejudiced  mind  can  fail  to  see  thous- 
ands of  instances  of  thought  and  purpose  manifested 
everywhere. 

33i 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

The  doctrine  of  Design — Teleology,  as  it  was  for- 
merly understood,  has  met  in  late  years  with  the  disap- 
proval of  most  scientific  men.  It  was  eagerly  adopted 
by  Metaphysicians,  who,  starting  with  the  a-priori 
view  of  both  Pagan  and  Sacred  Writers  that  this 
globe  was  the  centre  of  the  Universe,  around  which 
all  else  moved,  and  the  scene  of  man's  immaculate 
creation,  it  was  natural  to  suppose  that  man,  though 
fallen,  was  still  the  great  object  for  whose  welfare  all 
else  was  contrived.  This  was  and  is  the  Teleology  of 
Theologians  which  Science  does  not  accept.  The 
progress  of  scientific  knowledge — above  all,  the  gene- 
rally accepted  doctrine  of  Evolution — has  displaced 
man  from  his  early  eminence,  and  relegated  him  to 
his  place  in  nature — merely  the  greatest,  the  most  ad- 
vanced member  of  a  chain  of  beings,  more  or  less  like 
himself;  each  of  which  shows  in  its  lineage  the  same 
evidence  of'  intelligent  volition  and  of  wise  purpose 
in  its  construction,  that  he  himself  can  show. 

THE  TELEOLOGY  OF  SCIENCE  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Metaphysician  or  the  Theologian  of 
old.  Without  any  a-priori  assumptions,  it  meets 
everywhere  with  the  overwhelming  evidence  of  an 
intelligence  that  has  made  and  maintains  all  existence — 
the  VOLITION  that  animates  and  moves  THE  UNI- 
VERSE and  all  that  is  therein ;  not  apart  from  nor 
outside  of  Nature,  but  in  Nature,  sustaining  the  life 

332 


TELEOLOGY  AND  EVOLUTION 

of  each  creature  and  each  plant.  The  God  of  Science 
moves  not  in  erratic  changes  of  irruptive  volition, 
but  in  established  laws  of  wise  prevision.  To  know 
and  to  obey  these  laws  is  to  do  right ;  to  ignore  or 
violate  them  is  to  do  wrong.  The  consequences  of 
wrong-doing  follow,  irrespective  of  the  motive,  and 
usually  carry  their  own  punishment. 

It  has  pleased  God  to  bring  into  existence  consci. 
ous,  sentient  creatures.  To  those  first  formed,  with- 
out organs  or  with  simple  and  low  organization,  alow 
form  of  consciousness  was  given;  the  power  of 
adaptation  to  better  and  more  favorable  conditions 
was  bestowed,  and  with  it  the  internal  adjustment  of 
their  innate  conformation  in  conformity  thereto.  Dif- 
ferent traits  inherited  from  their  several  parents  in- 
duced various  lines  of  development.  Those  that 
increased  the  functional  capacity  of  certain  organs,  or 
made  possible  the  higher  development  of  the  species 
into  better  forms,  would  be  preserved,  and  would 
continue  still  to  improve;  those  that  retained  the 
parental  form  in  normal  vigor  would  continue  un- 
changed;  those  less  fitted  or  unfit  would  die  out. 
Thus  the  races  would  advance :  those  well  fitted  to 
lead  a  constant,  self-adjusted  life  would  continue  as  a 
species,  in  which  the  offspring  would  continue  to 
reproduce  the  original  parent  traits,  with  but  little 
change,  for  generation  after  generation.  This  condi- 

333 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION' 

tion  would  repeat  itself  indefinitely  until  slowly  the 
numerous  varieties  of  creatures  that  now  exist  were 
formed.  This  is  the  process  of  the  Evolution  of 
Life !  The  highest  step  therein  is  that  which  has 
given  to  the  brain  of  man  the  ability  to  turn  into 
subjective  thought  and  distinct  memory  the  conscious- 
ness that  is  past.  In  the  lower  brain  of  animals  this 
ability  scarcely,  if  ever,  lived ;  but  the  unconscious 
record  of  inherited  memories  impressed  thereon,  be- 
came the  instincts,  that  in  them  moved  and  governed, 
but  knew  not  why,  repeating  without  subjective 
thought  the  actions  that  their  ancestors  had  often  done 
before.  * 

*  The  often  repeated  acts  of  their  progenitors,  producing  by  "co-as- 
sociation of  the  nerve  cells,  those  reflex  actions,  partly  conscious, 
partly  involuntary  in  their  descendants,  that  we  name  instincts." 
They  are  called  into  being  by  the  stimulus  offered  by  its  hunger  or 
by  its  other  wants.  This  co-ordination  of  nerve  cells,  stimulus  and 
reflex  action  had  become  hereditary. 

W.  Benthall,  M.  D.— Read  before  the  Derby  Medical  Society. 
(From  the  Sci.  Amer.  Supt.,  Nov.  16,  1901.) 

334 


CHAPTER  XXYII 

YOUNG  ANIMALS — INFANCY — CHILDHOOD  —  DISCI- 
PLINE OF  LIFE  IN  MAN,  IN  WOMAN — MENTAL 
DIFFERENCES  IN  SEX — SCHOPENHAUSER'S  PES- 
SIMISM. 

THE  question  may  arise,  Is  life  to  any  Animal 
worth  living?  The  simplest  answer  is,  "It  is,  or 
why  should  it  be  given  ?"  but  this,  it  may  be  said,  is 
merely  "petitio  principii."  But  who  can  look  on  the 
hordes  of  lower  life,  upon  a  swarm  of  gnats  on  a 
summer  evening,  at  a  flock  of  birds  on  the  wing, 
to  a  number  of  animals  of  any  kind,  exulting  in  the 
power  of  motion,  without  seeing  that  they  are  rejoic- 
ing in  life  itself?  As  Monboddo  said  :  "  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  brute  creation  have  a  greater 
pleasure  in  mere  living,  than  the  higher  creature, 
man,  can  ever  know." 

All  animals  of  the  higher  orders,  including  man, 

begin  their  lives  alike.      Born  imperfect,  weak  and 

helpless,  they  are  dependent  upon  their  parents'  care, 

at  least  for  guidance  to  food,  if  not  for  the  food  itself; 

335 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

for  warmth,  for  shelter  and  protection.  Depending 
thus  upon  a  stronger  and  a  wiser  one  than  themselves, 
they  are  relieved  in  part  or  whole  from  the  thought 
and  care  for  the  present  moment  and  the  immediate 
future  that  later  in  life  await  them.  Their  new- 
born energies  surprise  and  delight  them ;  to  run,  to 
leap,  to  exercise  their  muscles,  is  to  play.  At  first 
the  inherited  records  on  their  brain  of  acts  oft  re- 
peated by  their  progenitors,  unconsciously  lead  them 
in  the  guise  of  instinct  to  do  what  is  best  to  do ;  the 
parents'  example  teaching  them  later  as  they  are 
able  to  learn.  Thus,  in  the  exuberance  of  youth- 
ful blood,  to  eat,  to  sleep,  to  run  and  to  play,  to 
know  no  danger,  feel  no  pain,  to  have  no  care  or 
thought  of  the  future,  mere  existence  is  perfect  happi- 
ness !  As  they  grow  older  the  duties  of  life  come 
on.  The  nearly  adult  animal  has  at  first  only  itself 
to  feed  and  to  forage  for,  but  anxiety,  watchfulness  and 
fatigue  take  the  place  of  careless  play.  Its  faculties 
are  sharpened  by  avoiding  danger  or  in  seeking  its 
prey.  Mere  pleasure  has  to  yield  its  place  to  duty 
that  carries  pleasure  with  it — at  first  in  caring  for 
itself,  and  later  in  caring  for  others.  A  new  hap- 
piness comes  with  the  latter — the  love  for  its  off- 
spring. 

Our  own  childhood  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
other  animals.     For  the  first  year  the  child  has  but 

336 


INFANCY 

little  consciousness  of  aught  beyond  a  vegetative 
life.  Its  utter  helplessness,  its  inability  to  move 
about,  to  express  any  want  or  feeling  otherwise  than 
by  cries  expressive  of  discomfort  arising  from  pain 
or  hunger,  make  it  absolutely  dependent  upon  the 
mother's  care.  During  this  period  it  is  probably  not 
conscious  of  more  than  a  vague  feeling  of  comfort 
and  satisfaction  if  it  is  well  and  its  wants  attended  to, 
or  of  equally  vague  sensations  of  discomfort  if  the 
conditions  are  otherwise.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year  a  great  change  occurs ;  the  evidences 
of  the  mind  higher  in  intelligence  than  those  of  the 
other  mammalia  now  begin  to  manifest  themselves. 
The  boy  recognizes  persons,  shows  that  he  under- 
stands in  part  when  spoken  to,  manifests  the  same 
pleasure  in  moving  his  limbs,  and  later  in  moving 
about,  that  all  young  animals  share.  With  his 
growth  comes  the  power  of  walking  and  running ; 
with  that  of  speech  the  establishment  of  the  faculty 
that  distinguishes  man  from  other  animals,  and  raises 
him  into  the  world  of  his  own. 

The  next  four  years  of  the  child  are  like  those  of 
the  young  of  the  higher  mammalia :  as  they  do,  so 
he  rejoices  in  the  exercise  of  his  bodily  and  muscular 
faculties.  He  delights  in  running,  jumping  and 
frolicking,  in  the  same  manner  and  for  the  same 
cause  that  the  lambs  and  kittens  do,  and  as  they 
22  337 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

are  so  is  he,  free  from  care  or  thought  of  the  morrow. 
Every  passing  moment  gives  him  a  lesson  from  the 
world  around  him,  which  he  learns  unconsciously. 
No  tasks  are  set  him,  and,  his  mind  expanding,  seeks 
to  know  and  greedily  drinks  in  all  that  stimulates 
rather  than  satisfies  his  curiosity.  When  six  or  seven 
years  old,  before  he  undergoes  the  discipline  of  school, 
a  healthful  and  properly  brought  up  child  probably 
enjoys  the  perfection  of  animal  happiness  :  not  only  the 
strictly  animal  functions  are  rejoicing  in  their  ap- 
propriate exercise,  but  his  awakening  mind,  becom- 
ing conscious  of  the  objective  world  around  him, 
looks  down  a  thousand  vistas  that  open  before  him, 
all  offering  hopes  and  pleasures  to  his  view.  His 
dependence  upon  those  that  care  for  him  and  from 
whom  he  receives  only  loving  kindness,  teaches  him 
to  love  in  return ;  his  affection  prompts  him  to  seek 
for  companionship  and  sympathy  where  he  is  sure  to 
find  it.  He  is  conscious  of  his  helplessness,  and 
flies  for  love,  comfort  and  protection  to  her  who  so 
gladly  gives  them.  With  him  health  is  happiness : 
thus  a  little  fellow  of  these  early  years,  coming,  as  on 
every  morning,  into  his  mother's  room  crowing  with 
joyful  noise,  was  asked  why  he  made  those  queer 
little  sounds;  "Oh,  I  am  so  happy  I  don't  know 
what  to  do ;  I  feel  as  if  I  must  scream  out  loud  be- 
cause I  am  so  happy!"  This  is  the  very  happi- 

338 


THE    YOUTH 

ness  of  life  itself,  in  which  the  lower  life  of  other 
creatures  participates,  perhaps  surpasses  us,  in  its  en- 
joyment. 

With  his  advancing  age  the  boy's  pleasure  in  mere 
animal  life  lessens.  His  school  days  begin;  the 
duties  of  life  claim  his  time,  and  confine  him  more 
or  less  to  stated  hours  and  away  from  his  games  and 
plays.  The  impulse  to  muscular  exertion  and  con- 
tests of  bodily  strength,  partly  in  friendly,  partly  in 
hostile  strife,  take  the  place  of  more  childish  play ; 
the  culture  of  his  mental  powers  occupies  increasingly 
his  time  and  thought;  his  duties  become  more  and 
more  onerous,  but  with  the  healthy  brain  and  body  he 
learns  a  new  pleasure — that  of  overcoming  difficul- 
ties and  of  surmounting  the  heights  that  are  hard  to 
climb. 

The  ambition  to  succeed  in  whatever  he  undertakes 
is  now  stronger  felt.  As  his  bodily  frame  increases 
so  do  his  mental  forces.  The  discipline  of  life  be- 
gins. The  paths  of  life,  on  some  of  which  his  course 
must  run,  will  now  lie  open  before  him  ;  they  should 
not  be,  and  seldom  are,  quite  smooth.  He  must 
choose  what  he  shall  do.  If  his  means  of  living  are 
from  day  to  day,  he  must  seek  for  work  such  as  he 
can  find ;  if  in  better  circumstances,  he  must  seek  for 
such  work  as  he  is  best  fitted  for.  To  all,  to  even 
the  young  millionaire,  the  duty  of  considering 
339 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

"What  shall  my  life  be?"  is  equally  imperative. 
If  health  and  strength  are  given — and  often  even 
when  they  are  not — he  can  to  a  great  extent  make  his 
life  as  he  wishes  it  to  be.  The  pleasures  of  life  must 
then  lie  in  the  fulfilment  of  its  duties.  The  mere 
animal  pleasures  thereof  must  be  relegated  to  the  past 
he  has  left  behind. 

Most  of  us  succeed  in  what  we  try  for.  The  youth 
who  only  seeks  for  happiness  in  the  pleasures  of  even 
innocent  sport,  who  delights  in  hunting,  in  horses,  in 
social  joys,  to  the  neglect  of  the  duty  of  improving 
his  mind  and  of  providing  for  the  future,  or  does 
so  perfunctorily,  gains  often  what  he  strives  for ;  but 
he  gains  that  only.  He  finds  when  too  late  that  neg- 
lected duties  cannot  be  reassumed  at  will,  and  that  the 
openings  to  his  success  in  life  are  closed  forever.  He, 
on  the  other  hand,  who  hopes  for  happiness  in  the 
fulfilment  of  his  duties,  and  places  pleasure  secondary 
thereto,  looks  to  the  future,  and  willingly  gives  up  for 
its  sake  the  passing  joys  of  the  moment,  which  can 
only  be  taken  by  sacrificing  something  else  that 
should  be  done.  As  in  all  other  things,  the  force  of 
habit  asserts  itself;  the  sense  of  duty  grows  stronger 
and  the  temptation  to  forsake  it  grows  weaker. 
Pleasures  of  a  better  sort  are  found,  and  the  hopes  of 
the  past  become  realized  in  the  results  of  the  early 
living  present. 

340 


THE    YOUNG  GIRL 

For  the  first  few  years  the  young  girl's  life  does 
not  differ  materially  from  that  of  the  boy.  The  same 
desire  for  bodily  exertion  and  for  constant  motion ; 
the  same  manifestation  of  the  joy  of  living  are 
shown  in  each.  As  the  intellect  opens,  the  inherited 
memories  from  the  parent  whose  physical  conforma- 
tion she  reproduces,  manifest  themselves.  As  her 
muscular  strength  is  less,  her  sports  and  games  are 
gentler,  too.  The  instinctive  love  for  dress  and 
adornment  replaces  that  of  the  boy  for  mimic  war. 
Dolls  give  her  the  delight  that  the  drum  and  the  toy 
gun  give  to  her  brother.  The  years  advance  more 
quickly  with  her.  At  thirteen  or  fourteen  she  abandons 
the  ruder  plays  she  has  shared  with  him ;  the  culture 
of  her  personal  graces,  which  she  had  given  lit- 
tle or  no  attention  to,  now  absorb  her  time  and 
thoughts.  She  is  quick  to  learn  and  often  ambitious 
to  excel.  Less  apt  to  be  drawn  aside  by  outside  dis- 
tractions, she  would  frequently  outspeed  her  brother 
in  his  studies  for  the  next  few  years,  were  it  not  that 
so  much  time  is  often  taken  to  acquire  accomplish- 
ments that  room  is  not  left  either  in  hours  or  in  men- 
tal training  for  the  sterner  work  that  he  has  to  do. 
Meanwhile  her  growth  advances ;  in  two  or  three 
years  more  her  figure  reaches  its  full  height  and  its 
full  development.  Her  mind  and  faculties  likewise 
mature.  In  character  she  is  more  impressionable  than 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

he,  more  emotional,  and  guided  by  the  affections,  uncon- 
scious instincts  and  feelings,  rather  than  by  a  sense 
of  justice  or  cold  critical  judgment.  While  the  youth 
remains  still  a  boy,  undeveloped  yet  for  several  years, 
in  mind  as  well  as  in  body,  she  becomes  a  perfect 
woman — lovely  in  form  and  feature ;  admirable  in 
her  intuitive  impressions  and  opinions;  clear  in  in- 
tellect ;  sympathetic,  gentle  and  loving  in  her  emotions 
and  her  ministrations.  Such  is  what  God  intended  a 
woman  should  be.  Such  is  what  many  a  woman  is. 

The  occupations  and  duties  of  later  life  being  dis- 
similar in  the  two  sexes,  the  evolution  of  their  mental 
characteristics  must  vary  likewise.  Nature  prompts 
each  sexto  consider  admirable  in  the  other  that  where- 
in it  most  differs  from  its  own.  Woman,  knowing 
her  physical  weakness — her  dependence  for  protection 
and  support  upon  a  stronger  arm  than  her  own  ;  per- 
haps guided  by  a  dim  memory  inherited  from  an  an- 
cestry long  past,  when  animal  strength  was  all  in 
all — looks  for  care  and  protection  approvingly  upon 
him  whose  manly  form  is  the  exponent  of  health  and 
strength.  When  to  these  are  added  the  proper  bearing, 
indicative  of  the  boldness  and  courage  that  a  man 
should  have,  the  outward  requisites  are  given  that  a  wo- 
man seeks.  When  still  very  young  many  women  ask 
for  nothing  more,  their  imagination  clothing  the  fa- 
vored one  with  ideal  virtues  and  qualities  never 

342 


THE    WOMAN 

possessed.  If  not  counterbalanced  in  him  by  vices  or 
cruelty,  a  love  thus  lightly  won  may  often  last  through 
a  long  life ;  domestic  ties,  the  force  of  habit  and  in- 
terests in  common,  filling  up  the  gaps  in  deficient 
character  that  a  thorough  acquaintance  must  reveal. 

With  women  of  mature  age  or  better  minds  the 
merely  physical  and  outward  traits  are  not  all  suffi- 
cient ;  they  value  most,  often  unconsciously,  the  menial 
characteristics  that  distinguish  the  man  from  that  of 
her  own  sex.  Not  so  much  the  cultivated  intellect, 
the  learned,  well-read  and  original  thinker,  as  he 
whose  manner  is  indicative  of  a  reserve  force,  of  the 
power  to  control  others  and  to  command  himself. 
If  she  is  a  thorough  woman,  she  gladly  recognizes  in 
him  qualities  that  may  be  deficient  in  herself.  She 
should  honor  and  esteem  before  she  begins  to  love. 

In  the  complex  civilization  in  which  we  live  many 
other  motives  influence  her  choice.  Wealth  and  Posi- 
tion are  forces  in  themselves  that  replace  the  natural 
ones  that  a  simpler  life  would  offer.  The  charm  of 
novelty  and  the  interest  thereby  excited  in  a  new  ac- 
quaintance, together  with  the  inborn  desire  of  pleas- 
ing and  of  successful  rivalry,  are  often  the  determin- 
ing causes  in  love  affairs  that  a  more  intimate  knowl- 
edge would  have  dissuaded  from.  In  such  cases 
the  prospect  for  mutual  happiness  at  best  can  be  but 
doubtful. 

343 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

As  with  the  woman,  the  manly  attributes  are  those 
that  are  attractive  to  her;  so  man  is  captivated  by  the 
feminine  virtues,  and  often  even  by  its  defects.  The 
very  difference  between'  their  characters — that  which 
pleases  her  in  him — would  repel,  if  not  disgust,  him 
if  visible  in  her.  Most  women  well  know  this,  and 
often  seek  to  please  and  captivate  by  manifesting 
their  feminine  helplessness  and  their  want  of  courage 
and  of  strength.  The  greater  liberty  that  he  pos- 
sesses in  seeking  her  whom  he  may  prefer  usually 
makes  her  dependent  upon  the  evidences  of  his  pref- 
erence before  she  can  manifest  her  own.  As  the  ulti- 
mate disposal  of  herself  is  in  her  own  hands,  she 
does  not  fail  to  exert  her  art  of  pleasing,  and  at 
times  leads  him  on  by  an  apparent  interest  that  he 
mistakes  for  real,  until  the  avowal  of  his  feelings 
proves  her  success.  This  is  often  met  with  little  con- 
sideration for  the  disappointment  caused.  In  the 
nature  of  the  relation  of  the  respective  sexes  this  is 
not  entirely  avoidable,  for  she  does  not  always  know 
herself  or  her  own  feelings  until  his  action  calls  for 
a  decision.  Too  often,  though,  she  is  throughout 
perfectly  sure  that  it  is  "  Love's  labor  lost,"  and  rather 
enjoys  than  regrets  his  ultimate  discomfiture. 

These  actions,  together  with  the  thousand  little 
evasions,  deceptions  and  false  pretences  that  custom, 
modesty  and  decorum  almost  unavoidably  force  upon 

344 


SCHOPENHAUER  AND    WOMAN 

a  woman's  life,  unfortunately,  often  tend  to  make 
many  women  less  regardful  of  the  inviolability  of 
truth  in  little  things  and  less  conscious  of  its  value. 
Though  undeserving  of  the  terms  in  which  that 
apostle  of  Pessimism,  "  Schopenhauer,"  speaks,  such 
behavior  has  influenced  many  minds  to  think  and  to 
judge  disparagingly  of  her.* 

Schopenhauer  led  a  very  free,  dissolute  life ;  when 
twenty-six  years  old  he  quarrelled  with  his  mother 
(an  authoress  of  culture  and  ability)  for  no  fault  on 
her  part.  He  even  refused  ever  again  to  see  her  be- 
fore her  death,  twenty-four  years  later.  He  formed 
his  estimate  of  women  only  from  those  of  low  de- 
gree. He  would  not  even  grant  to  their  sex  per- 
sonal beauty.f 

There  may  be,  perhaps,  some  little  truth  in  what 
he  says,  but  the  bitterness  of  his  pessimism  poisons 

*  "  Women  believe,"  he  says,  "  Wir  sind  berechtigt  die  zu  hinterge- 
hen,  welche  dadurch  das  sie  fur  uns,  das  Individuum  sparlich  sorgen, 
ein  recht  iiber  die  Species  erlangt  zu  haben  vermeinen.  .  .  .  Die  Ver- 
stellung  ist  ihr  daher  angeboren,  deshalb  auch  fast  so  sehr  dem  dura- 
men wie  dem  klugen  Weibe  eigen.  Darum  ist  ein  ganz  wahrhaftig 
unverstelltes  Weib  vielleicht  unmoglich.  Eben  deshalb  durchschauen 
sie  fremde  Verstellung  so  leicht,  das  es  nicht  rathsam  ist,  ihnen  geg- 
eniiber,  es  damit  zu  versuchen.  Aus  dem  aufgestellten  Grundfehler 
und  seinen  Beigaben  entspricht  aber  Falschheit  Treulosigkeit,  Ver- 
rath,  Undank.  U.  S.  W." 

f  He  calls  them  "  Das  niedrig  gewachsene,  schmal  schulterige,  brei- 
thiiftige  und  Kurzbeinige  Geschlecht,  das  schone  nennen  konnte  nur 
der  vom  Geschlechtstrieb  umneblte  mannliche  Intellect;  in  diesem 
Triebe  namlich,  steckt  seine  ganze  Schonheit."  (Uber  die  Weiber 
Sec.  379-383.) 

345 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

all  it  touches.  Neither  woman  nor  man  is  without 
faults,  in  each  sex  peculiar  to  its  own.  We  all  bear 
around  us  more  or  less  of  the  crysalis  state  of  life 
from  which  we  have  in  part  emerged.  The  wisest 
and  the  best  of  us  know  it,  and  strive  that  in  and 
from  our  lives  there  may  be  evolved  higher  and 
better  ones,  bearing  less  and  less  of  the  lower  forms 
from  which  we  have  come.  To  value  and  to  praise 
the  beauty  that  graces  the  female  nature,  in  its  frame, 
in  its  moral  and  in  its  mental  attributes,  is  the  duty 
as  well  as  the  happiness  of  man.  It  is  only  the 
morbid  and  diseased  diathesis  that  finds  fault  with 
the  qualities — varied  from  those  of  man — that  are 
given  to  her  sex  for  the  duties  required,  and  which 
are  so  varied  because  they  must  be  different  from 
those  of  men. 

346 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

YOUTHFUL  LOVE — MARRIAGE — A  MOTHER'S  LOVE 
— THE  LESSONS  OF  LIFE — THE  DUTY  OF  LEARN- 
ING THE  PSYCHICAL  AND  MORAL  LAWS. 

"  Und  herrlich,  in  der  Jugend  Prangen, 
Wie  eiu  Gebild  aus  Himmelshohn, 
Mit  zuchtigen,  verschamten  Wangen 
Sieht  er  die  Jungfrau  vor  sich  stehen. 
Errotend  folgt  er  ihren  Spuren 
Und  ist  von  ihrem  Gruss  begliickt, 
Das  Schonste  sucht  er  auf  den  Fluren, 
Womit  er  seine  Liebe  schmiickt. 
0  zarte  Sehnsucht,  susses  Hoffen  1 
Der  ersten  Liebe  goldne  Zeit  I 
Das  Auge  sieht  den  Himmel  offen, 
Es  schwelgt  das  Herz  in  Seligkeit. 
^  0,  dass  sie  ewig  griinen  bliebe 

Die  schone  Zeit  der  jungen  Liebe! " 

OF  all  the  motives  that  influence  our  lives  none  are 
so  potent  and  widespread  in  their  action  as  that 
caused  by  the  difference  of  sex  and  the  emotion  that 
springs  therefrom.  Having  its  basis  in  the  instincts 
that  we  share  with  all  other  breathing  creatures,  it 
rises  above  them  in  proportion  as  our  nature  is  a 
higher  and  a  better  one  than  theirs.  Stronger  in  its 
impulses  in  the  young  man  than  in  the  maiden,  it  is 
347 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLLTlOtf 

often  the  stimulus  to  ambition — the  source  from 
which  he  builds  his  hopes  for  the  future.  It  holds 
before  him  as  the  goal  to  reach,  the  prize  to  strive  for, 
the  image  that  to  him  is  graced  with  the  beauty  of  an 
angel  and  the  virtues  of  a  saint.  "To  him  there  was 
but  one  beloved  face  on  earth,  and  that  was  shining 
on  him."  Very  often  this  early  love  languishes  and 
dies  without  response  and  even  without  revealment; 
but  if  his  dream  lasts  long  enough,  and  the  awaken- 
ing be  not  too  rude,  his  whole  life  may  bear  its  in- 
fluence for  good.  Other  and  better  placed  affections 
may  come  in  later  life ;  but  the  impress  made  by 
life's  first  emotion,  often  is  never  quite  effaced. 

Sir  Henry  Maudsley  says :  "  If  we  were  to  go  on  to 
follow  the  development  of  the  sexual  instinct  to  its 
highest  reach,  we  should  not  fail  to  discover  a  great 
range  of  operation ;  for  we  might  trace  its  influence 
in  the  highest  feelings  of  mankind,  social,  moral  and 
religious.  With  the  deprivation  of  sexual  feeling 
goes  the  mental  growth  and  energy  which  it  inspires, 
directly,  or  indirectly.  How  much  that  is  it  would  be 
hard  to  say ;  but  were  man  deprived  of  the  instinct 
and  of  all  that  mentally  springs  from  it,  it  is  probable 
that  most  of  the  poetry,  and  perhaps  all  the  moral 
feeling,  would  be  cut  out  of  his  life."  (The  Physiology 
of  Mind,  p.  372.)  The  subject  matter  of  all  romances, 
of  nearly  all  the  dramas  of  real  life,  as  well  as  those 

343 


MARRIAGE 

of  fiction,  is  this  passion.  It  has  been  called  an 
episode  only  in  the  life  of  man,  but  the  very  life 
itself  of  woman.  Less  demonstrative,  because  her 
role  is  the  more  passive  one — to  be  sought  rather  than 
to  seek — it  holds  her  under  its  reign  with  equal  force, 
and  she  returns  with  equal  happiness  the  love  she 
has  inspired. 

With  the  departure  from  the  parental  home  the 
new  phase  of  life  begins.  All  through  the  past  the 
maiden  has  had  few  duties  to  others  than  herself. 
Her  days  have  been  spent,  though  she  scarcely  knows 
it,  much  as  other  young  animals  spend  theirs :  in 
frolicking  over  the  sunny  meadows  and  green  path- 
ways that  lie  before  them,  with  little  care  for  the 
moment,  and  thoughtless  confidence  in  the  future. 
She  has  now  to  think  for  and  care  for,  another  than 
herself.  The  attention  and  devotion  that  the  lover 
gave  unremittingly,  is  replaced  by  the  calmer  and 
milder  aifection  of  the  husband,  who,  returning  to  his 
daily  duties  and  habits,  now  has  other  thoughts  and 
finds  other  occupation  also.  With  each  of  them,  the 
rose-tinted  aurora  of  love's  early  day,  passes  into  the 
clearer  but  less  poetic  morning  of  every-day  life. 
With  the  latter,  come  the  vexations,  the  trials  and  the 
troubles  that  fall  to  the  lot  of  all.  Happy  they  who 
have  not  been  moved  to  marriage  only  by  mere  out- 
ward charms  or  by  wild  gusts  of  passion,  but  by  love 

349 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

and  affection  founded  on  respest,  esteem  and  that 
knowledge  of  each  other  that  will  leave  but  little  to 
be  discovered  in  the  better  knowledge  that  the  new 
life  will  bring.  Some  disappointments  must  be  looked 
for.  None  of  us  can  be  so  perfect  that  the  balance  of 
our  temper,  or  of  our  disposition,  does  not  preponder- 
ate to  one  side  or  to  the  other  ;  whichever  way  it  may 
lean  may  be  a  defect.  Such  little  failings  are  often 
more  trying  than  those  of  greater  moment.  The 
character  of  each  must  be  learned  anew  by  the  other. 
Most  fortunate  are  they  whose  only  faults  are  thus 
trivial ;  but  from  such  causes  it  is  said  the  first  year 
of  marriage  is  often  the  least  happy  one  of  all.  The 
graver  faults,  if  any,  are  more  liable  to  be  due  to  the 
man  ;  the  lighter  ones  to  the  woman,  who  is  more  apt 
to  be  irritable  and  sometimes  unreasonable.  The 
change  to  her  is  a  greater  one,  and  trifling  annoyances 
at  times  are  hard  to  bear.  He  should  ever  remem- 
ber as  Prior  writes :  "  Be  to  her  virtues  very  kind ; 
be  to  her  faults  a  little  blind." 

Among  the  many  previsions  manifested  for  the 
welfare  of  man,  none  can  conduce  so  much  thereto  as 
when  two  lives  are  happily  joined  as  Man  and  Wife. 
Although  in  this  connection,  as  in  all  else  dependent 
upon  human  action,  the  union  formed  may  prove  un- 
happy— may  have  been  entered  on  with  little  thought 
or  care  for  the  duties  due  from  and  to  each  other,  and 


MARRIED  LIFE 

disappointment  and  unhappiness  be  the  logical  result — 
yet  most  often,  the  love  that  mutually  began  in  youth 
grows  stronger  with  each  passing  year. 

In  no  other  relation  can  be  together  joined  the  in- 
telligent and  cultivated  mind,  "  that  knows  us  better 
than  we  know  ourselves : "  the  Intuition  that  so 
often  wisely  counsels  or  dissuades ;  the  careful  guar- 
dian of  our  home  and  all  within  it;  the  gentle  com- 
panion, whose  love,  sympathy  and  interest  share  in  all 
the  pleasures  and  the  sorrows  of  our  life.  Our  chil- 
dren's lives  grow  away  from  us.  Our  past  and  their  fu- 
ture can  have  little  in  common ;  our  nearest  friends, 
still  less.  But  he  who  is  blessed  with  such  a  wife 
should  truly  thank  God  for  the  greatest  of  all  His 
gifts,  for  the  very  sunlight  of  his  existence  !  , 

When,  with  the  flight  of  time,  her  children  come 
upon  the  scene,  the  earnest  cares  of  life  come  with 
them.  It  is  now  her  part  to  feel  for  them  that  love 
that  in  her  infancy  had  been  lavished  on  her.  Until 
now  she  scarcely  felt  and  surely  never  valued  fully, 
the  parents'  fears,  the  hopes,  the  nights  and  days  of 
anxious  watching,  the  deep  affection  that  gives  so 
much  and  asks  so  little. 

Our  beginning,  infancy,  is  identical  with  the  un- 
conscious life  of  the  lowest  orders.  Scarcely  higher 
than  the  vegetative  plane,  it  is  dependent,  absolutely 
for  all  but  breath,  upon  a  mother's  care.  All  adult 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

animals  find  their  greatest  happiness  in  those  days 
when  their  whole  time  and  thought  are  given  to  the 
helpless  ones  they  love.  The  bird,  hastening  to  its 
nest  with  food  for  its  young ;  the  hen,  busy  with  her 
little  brood;  the  patient  mother,  with  her  kittens 
sprawling  over  her  as  she  lies — all  attest  the  tender 
feeling  that  animates  her  who  protects  and  loves  the 
little  ones,  and  to  whose  care  they  have  been  given. 
To  her  comes  also  the  greatest  happiness  this  world 
can  give — the  love  of  the  young  mother  for  her  child  : 
unselfish,  untiring,  delighting  in  the  fulfilment  of  the 
duties  now  imposed,  the  inborn  instincts  inherited 
by  her,  in  common  with  the  mothers  of  most  other 
creatures,  rejoices  in  the  young  life  given,  and  for  its 
defense  and  preservation  would  willingly  venture  her 
own ! 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  woman's  nature  differs 
from  that  of  man.  For  her,  the  duty  above  all  things 
else,  is  to  defend  and  guard  the  helpless  beings  in  her 
charge.  For  the  mothers,  in  all  the  long  line  of  an- 
cestral evolution  through  which  she  came,  have  had 
this  task.  It  was  not  their  duty  and  it  is  not  hers 
to  consider  the  rights  of  others — to  give  to  others 
that  which  is  justly  due  them.  For  her  the  outside 
world  is  as  nothing  when  the  welfare  of  her  young 
children  is  in  question.  The  races  of  the  world  may 
perish  rather  than  that  one  of  her  little  ones  should 

352 


MATERNAL    LOVE 

be  harmed.  Her  intuitive  good  sense,  her  affection 
and  her  kindness  will  often  guide  her  rightly  through 
life ;  her  sense  of  justice  never  will ;  for  in  her  it 
should  scarcely  have  and  seldom  has  an  existence. 

Thus  alike  for  man  and  woman  the  lessons  of  life 
are  learned.  The  state  of  infancy  and  of  immaturity 
continue  much  longer  with  man  than  with  the  lower 
animals,  in  proportion  to  their  respective  term  of  years. 
In  the  lessons  taught  in  the  long  infancy  the  teacher 
learns  as  well  as  teaches.  The  affection,  unselfishness 
and  solicitude  with  which  the  child  has  been  brought 
up,  react  upon  the  parent,  and  extend  their  guiding 
influence  on  his  feelings  and  actions  into  a  wider 
circle  than  that  in  which  they  originated,  and  form 
abstract  ideas  of  the  wise  and  good  which  in  earlier 
days  he  did  not  have.  In  this  way  alone  the  parent 
is  often  rewarded.  The  stream  of  affection  runs  down- 
ward ! — the  child  too  frequently  taking  as  a  matter  of 
course,  with  little  sense  of  gratitude,  all  that  has  been 
done  for  him  for  a  score  of  years  or  more.  Not  until 
he  becomes  a  parent  himself  does  he  begin  to  recog- 
nize how  much  has  been  given  him  in  days  long  past. 

Life  offers  many  problems  that  are  hard  to  solve, 
very  many  that  cannot  be  solved.  The  best  that  we 
can  do  is  to  look  upon  the  world,  not  as  we  think  it 
might  have  been  made,  but  as  it  really  is ;  to  seek  to 
know  the  laws  that  govern  it ;  to  understand  how 
23  353 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

they  act,  and  why  they  act,  and,  when  we  obtain  the 
knowledge  thereof,  to  yield  willing  obedience  to  the 
power  that  cannot  be  controverted.  In  this  regard 
the  moral  and  psychical  laws  are  like  the  physical, 
though  the  former  laws  are  not  so  easily  learned.  In 
regard  to  the  latter  the  child,  before  it  can  walk, 
learns  that  it  must  avoid  certain  acts  and  leave  cer- 
tain things  untouched,  or  it  will  suffer  pain  in  conse- 
quence. All  men  know  that  the  laws  of  gravitation 
are  no  respecter  of  persons.  No  amount  of  piety, 
innocence  or  virtue  will  save  from  destruction  one 
who,  carelessly  approaching,  falls  from  a  precipice. 
The  over-venturesome  swimmer,  when  his  strength 
gives  out,  will  be  drowned,  whether  he  be  a  saint  or  a 
sinner.  Even  the  zealous  physician,  who  devotes 
himself  to  science,  and  for  the  benefit  of  it  and  of  his 
fellow-men  searches  out  the  cause  and  the  possible  cure 
of  a  virulent  disease,  if  not  very  watchful,  may  fall, 
and  often  does  fall,  a  victim  to  deficient  caution.  Many 
dangers  cannot  be  averted,  but  very  many  can.  The 
laws  that  govern  mental  and  moral  acts  are  equally 
positive  and  equally  inflexible.  They  are  not  so  self- 
evident  and  self-asserting  as  those  that  are  called  the 
physical  laws,  but  all  who  care  can  read  them,  and 
if  wise  obey  them.  The  unpardonable  sin  is  that 
ignorance  that  cares  not  to  know  and  will  not  learn. 

354 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

ATAVISM  AND  CRIME — UTTER  SELFISHNESS — BRU- 
TALITY— PUNISHMENT  SHOULD  BE  DETERRENT 
AND  PREVENTIVE,  NOT  REVENGEFUL. 

IT  wag  stated  before  that  the  question  why  Sin 
should  exist  in  the  world  has  been  ever  asked  and  is 
ever  still  unanswered.  The  churches,  Catholic  and 
Protestant,  fail  to  answer,  though  each  provides  a 
remedy  to  avoid  the  punishment  thereof:  the  one  re- 
pentance and  the  Church ;  the  other  repentance  and 
faith.  Each  leaves  unanswered :  "  Why  was  man 
permitted  to  sin?"  Modern  science  does  not  pretend 
to  know  much  more  than  the  churches,  but  believes 
it  can  throw  some  light  thereon. 

The  dogma  that  Sin  existed  on  the  earth  before 
Death,  and  that  the  latter  came  in  consequence  thereof 
as  its  punishment,  is  not  supported  by  historic  truth. 
Death  existed  thousands  of  centuries  before  man ;  it 
is  clearly  evident  that  it  is  as  essential  a  part  of 
the  economy  of  nature  as  birth  itself.  Life  could  not 
have  existed  as  this  world  was  and  is  without  it.  The 
355 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

certain  ending  within  an  allotted  time  of  every  indi- 
vidual life,  great  or  small,  is  as  fully  under  the  pre- 
vision of  wise  laws  as  the  replacement  thereof  by 
the  birth  of  a  new,  young  and  vigorous  life  that  is 
lent  us  for  a  little  while ;  then,  too,  returns  whence  it 
was  sent.  Death  was  intended  to  come  and  must 
come.  Where  the  action  of  life's  forces  has  been 
perfect  and  their  operation  unimpeded  by  accidental 
causes,  the  threescore  years  and  ten  for  man,  or  the 
longer  limit  of  fourscore  years,  should  generally  be 
passed.  That  it  is  not  so,  is  frequently*  due  to  our 
ignorance,  our  own  fault,  or  the  fault  of  those  whose 
lives  are  our  inheritance. 

The  philosophy  of  evolution  teaches  that  while  the 
qualities  inherited  from  their  immediate  ancestors  are 
usually  reproduced  in  the  offspring,  Atavism,  or  a  re- 
version to  the  characteristics  of  some  ancestor  in  the 
far  distant  past,  quite  frequently  appears.  This  re- 
version is  not  necessarily  an  injury ;  it  may  reproduce 
the  traits  of  a  certain  line  of  ancestors  that  were 
better  in  some  respects,  than  those  shown  on  the 
average  by  the  more  immediate  progenitors  ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  an  inferior  type  may  appear.  The  latter 
is  more  frequently  the  case,  for  since  both  natural 
and  sexual  selection  have  tended  to  advance  the  race, 
atavism  would  most  probably  lead  back  to  conditions 
less  favorable  than  those  now  existing.  A  less  health- 


ATAVISM  AND  CRIME 

ful  body  or  brain,  would  be  more  likely  than  the 
stronger  and  better  one,  to  be  the  object  of  rever- 
sion. In  this  manner  the  habits  of  mind  of  the  sav- 
ages of  early  ages  at  times  reappear  in  their  late  de- 
scendants ;  even  the  almost  feral  lives  that  once  were 
led,  come  before  us  like  Vampires  *  from  their  far  off 
graves.  What  are  called  monstrosities,  are  those  un- 
fortunate creatures  among  animals  in  whose  antenatal 
growth  some  obstruction  or  malposition  has  sent  into 
the  world  deficient  in  conformation,  or  joining  in  dis- 
torted structure  two  bodies  partly  into  one.  So  also 
are  born  persons  whose  brains  and  mental  forces  are 
more  or  less  deformed,  not  in  the  manner  that  all 


*  Belief  in  the  Vampire  Superstition,  though  long  before  existing, 
spread  in  the  early  part  of  the  17th  Century  like  an  epidemic,  from 
Moravia,  Hungary  and  Poland  throughout  all  Northern  Europe, 
where  it  still  exists.  In  West  Prussia  and  in  Pomerania  as  late  as 
1871  numerous  lawsuits  arose  in  consequence  thereof.  It  is  believed 
that  the  ghost  rises  from  the  graves  where  certain  dead  are  buried, 
visits  people  in  their  sleep,  especially  those  of  its  own  family,  sucks 
their  blood,  so  that,  after  repeated  visits,  they  sicken  and  die.  Those 
who  have  been  thus  attacked  and  have  died,  become  themselves  Vam- 
pires and  cause  other  deaths.  On  opening  the  grave  of  a  Vampire 
the  body,  though  long  interred,  appears  like  a  fresh  corpse,  ruddy 
and  filled  with  blood.  No  exorcism  or  priestly  rites  are  of  avail. 
The  nocturnal  visits  will  continue  until  the  corpse  is  disinterred,  the 
head  cut  off  and  a  wooden  stake  driven  through  the  body.  Crema- 
tion is  also  effectual.  (See  Dissertations  sur  les  Revenants,  par  R.  P. 
Dom  Augustin  Calmet.  P.  273.  Paris,  1746,  also  Meyer's  Kon. 
Lex.,  1897.) 

The  name  applied  to  certain  large  bats  which  are  thought  to  suck 
the  blood  of  sleeping  persons  is  borrowed  from  this  gruesome  super- 
stition. The  word  itself  is  of  Servian  origin. 

357 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

recognize  as  disease  or  insanity,  but  such  as  in  whom 
a  moral  distortion  occurs.  As  the  insane  show  their 
mental  disease  by  their  inability  to  reason  rightly,  so 
these  latter  show  their  moral  disease  in  their  inca- 
pacity to  act  rightly.  Such  traits  are  often  the  direct 
inheritance  from  their  parents;  often,  though,  they 
come  from  far  off  ancestors,  and  appear,  as  it  were, 
sporadically  in  one  member  of  a  family  only,  in  which 
neither  parents  nor  the  other  children  manifest  such . 
faults.  The  form  in  which  it  oftenest  appears  is  the 
partial  or  total  absence  of  the  sense  of  Duty ;  of  that 
feeling  of  obligation  that  impels  its  possessor  to  a 
given  action  or  rule  of  conduct  because  he  ought  to 
do  so,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  gain,  from  the  de- 
sire for  pleasure,  or  to  please  others.  This  feeling  of 
duty  can  be  made  stronger  or  kept  alive  by  practice, 
or  it  may  be  allowed  to  die  out  by  neglect.  With 
some  persons  it  seems  never  to  have  existed,  nor  can 
it  be  made  to  grow  anew.  It  is  nearly  identical  with 
what  is  known  as  conscience.  To  those  born  with  it, 
to  have  done  wrong  is  to  suffer  painfully.  To 
those  who  have  it  not,  it  is  only  chance  or  oppor- 
tunity that  makes  them  or  keeps  them  from  being 
criminals. 

Another  inheritance  from  atavism  is  that  condition 
which   expresses   itself  as   over-selfishness.     In   the 
stages  of  man's  early  life,  self-preservation  and  the 
358 


ATAVISM  AND   CRIME 

care  of  his  own  was  his  first  duty.  As  civilization 
advanced,  the  need  of  considering  the  wants  and  rights 
of  those  near  and  around  him  was  forced  upon  him  : 
he  learned  also  that  it  was  wise  to  take  thought  for 
the  morrow,  to  lay  up  provision  for  the  future,  and  to 
deny  himself  an  immediate  pleasure  for  the  sake  of 
avoiding  a  future  .ill.  Thus  he  learned  self-restraint 
in  his  conduct  to  others,  though tfulness  for  others, 
and  finally  the  wish  and  the  power  to  control  himself 
in  the  present  and  in  the  immediate  future,  in  the 
hope  of  a  greater  good  in  a  far  off  time  to  come. 
This  mode  of  thought  and  action  is  still  selfishness, 
but  it  is  an  enlightened  selfishness  that,  although  act- 
ing for  itself,  considers  and  takes  care  of  the  interest 
of  others.  Joined  with  the  sense  of  duty  before 
named,  they  form  together  the  mainsprings  to  a  pro- 
per life. 

The  victim  of  atavism  without  the  feeling  of  the 
obligation  of  duty,  has  only  the  primitive  selfishness 
of  the  savage  life.  Too  indolent  to  work  honestly, 
he  supplies  himself  with  what  he  needs  by  appropri- 
ating, as  his  far  off  ancestors  did — by  cunning  or  by 
open  violence — the  goods  of  others.  If  well  placed  in 
life,  he  contrives  means  of  helping  himself  by  secret 
participation  in  illegal  contracts,  by  misappropriating 
funds,  by  buying  up  and  selling  out  railroads  to  their 
ruin,  or  the  thousand  and  one  ways  in  which  unscrupu- 
359 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

lous  men  enrich  themselves  to  the  detriment  of  others. 
The  more  lowly  scoundrel  carries  his  selfishness  still 
further.  For  the  present  pleasure  or  the  moment's 
gain  he  throws  away  the  morrow's  future.  He  will 
not  or  cannot  work,  but  will  lie,  cheat,  steal,  or  even 
murder,  for  a  pittance  that  a  week's  honest  work  would 
have  supplied.  His  selfishness  is  even  greater  to  him- 
self than  to  all  others,  unless  it  be  to  some  unhappy 
woman  that  he  may  have  in  his  power,  whom  he  ill- 
treats  and  may  finally  murder.  Drink,  which  reveals 
his  worst  but  his  true  character,  really  maddens  him. 

At  times  reappear  the  traits  of  a  lower  life  even 
than  a  human  life — that  of  a  savage  beast;  like  the 
wolf,  he  delights  in  blood  ;  even  in  childhood  he  slays 
his  playmates  to  enjoy  their  sufferings  and  his  own 
excitement.  Yet  this  is  not  insanity ;  it  is  only  the 
extreme  type  of  a  reversion  to  the  brutal  instincts, 
that  are  like  the  malformed,  brute-like  features 
sometimes  born ;  he  is  a  moral  monstrosity,  as  the 
other  is  a  physical  one.  Happily  for  the  race  of  man 
this  form  of  atavism  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

The  character  formed  by  heredity  can  usually  be 
made  better  or  be  made  worse  by  its  possessor,  as 
he  may  choose.  Ambition  to  excel  may  guide  him 
one  way,  or  the  love  of  Pleasure  lead  the  other. 
The  ways  of  life  are  not  intended  to  be  always 
smooth  and  pleasatft.  The  rougher  the  path,  the 
360 


A  TA  VISM  AND   CRIME 

more  obstacles  to  overcome  or  to  be  avoided;  so 
much  the  greater  is  the  need  of  continued  effort  to  ad- 
vance ;  so  much  the  greater  must  be  the  stimulus  to 
call  forth  the  strength  and  the  abilities  of  the  way- 
farer. Experience  has  shown  that  where  exertion  is 
not  compulsory  little  effort  will  be  made.  In  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  where  the  climate  is  a  perpetual 
summer,  where  clothes  are  worn  for  ornament  only, 
not  for  warmth,  where  the  bread-fruit  tree  grows 
wild,  and  nature  provides  all  other  food  needed  for 
sustenance  and  pleasure  without  effort  to  him  who 
wants  it,  the  natives  spend  their  days  in  a  half-dreamy 
state  of  indolence — dance,  swim  and  play  their  lives 
away  like  children,  diversified  only  by  fighting  with 
the  neighboring  tribes  like  themselves.  Often  they 
have  acquired  cannibalism,  not  from  a  scarcity  of 
other  animal  food  nor  as  a  religious  custom,  but  simply 
from  their  delight  in  such  delicious  dainties.  Hav- 
ing had  no  incentive  to  exert  themselves,  they  have 
never  done  so,  and  have  therefore  remained  without 
improvement — savages  in  an  earthly  paradise. 

The  stimulus  to  labor  or  to  advance  affects  but 
lightly  those  who  in  our  midst  inherit  undue  selfish- 
ness, or  those  who  being  born  to  better  things  have 
drifted  into  vicious  habits  :  many  of  them  acting 
upon  the  maxim,  "  Let  him  get  who  has  the  might, 
and  let  him  keep  who  can/'  need  the  repressing  hand 
361 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

of  the  law  to  protect  others  from  their  greed  and  to 
punish  those  who  have  offended.  Under  the  opera- 
tion of  Nature's  laws  punishment  comes,  not  vindic- 
tively, but  as  the  necessary  consequence  and  direct 
result  of  the  infraction  of  laws  intended  for  the  good 
of  all;  the  punishment  usually  follows  irrespective  of 
the  motive  of  the  law-breaker.  Plague,  pestilence 
and  famine  came,  and  still  come,  because  cleanliness 
and  the  laws  of  hygiene  have  been  neglected,  not  as 
the  vengeance  of  a  higher  power.  Such  direct  con- 
sequences, if  possible,  should  follow  the  institution 
and  operation  of  human  laws,  not  "An  eye  for  an 
eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth"  in  angry  retribution,  but 
as  the  inevitable  result  of  the  violation  of  laws  that 
must  be  kept  for  the  good  of  all.  Man's  punish- 
ment for  crime  should  have  but  two  motives :  deter- 
rence of  others  from  crime  by  the  fear  of  punishment  : 
and  the  prevention  of  its  recurrence  by  the  same  per- 
son, for  a  time  or  forever,  by  imprisonment  or  by 
death.  The  deterrence  of  crime  depends  very  much 
upon  the  certainty  and  the  rapidity  of  punishment 
after  the  deed,  both  of  which  in  this  land  are  woefully 
deficient,  sympathy  for  the  criminal,  sentimental  folly 
and  delay  too  often  intervening.  Legal  punishment 
is  considered  by  many  people  too  much  as  an  act  of 
vengeance;  such  it  should  never  be,  but,  like  the 
punishment  that  nature  brings,  it  should  be  surely, 
relentlessly  and  swiftly  administered. 

362 


CHAPTER  XXX 

FEAR  FOB  THE  FUTURE — THE  DREAD  OF  DEATH 
— RETROSPECT  OF  LIFE — THE  GOSPEL  OF  EVO- 
LUTION— THE  QUESTION  OF  A  FUTURE  LIFE. 

"So  live  that,  when,  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  moves 
To  that  mysterious  realm  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death, 
Thou  go  not,  like  the  quarry  slave  at  night, 
Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but,  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him,  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams."* 

Our  progress  through  life  is  marked  with  many 
pleasures,  but  also  with  many  sorrows.  Pain  or 
suffering  are  more  positive  in  their  impressions  on 
us,  so  much  more  keenly  felt  than  anything  we  call 
happiness,  that  the  remembrance  of  the  former  and 
the  fear  of  its  recurrence,  often  blots  out  all  hope  for 
the  latter.  The  sorrows  caused  by  anxiety  in  our 
business  affairs,  the  fear  for  the  health  of  those  we 
love,  and,  above  all,  the  dread  of  losing  them  by 

*  Thanatopsis— W.  C.  Bryant. 
363 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

death,  throw  dark  shadows  over  all  but  our  youthful 
years.  Of  these  sorrows  many  arise  from  the  antici- 
pation of  trouble  in  advance,  but  which  trouble  may 
never  come.  Yet  this  anxiety  or  fear  for  the  future 
is  the  needed  guide  through  life — the  replacement  of 
instinct  by  reason.  Our  advance  in  intelligence  often 
brings  to  us  griefs  that  in  their  ignorance  our  remote 
ancestors  never  felt ;  our  reason,  like  Cassandra,  proph- 
esying evils,  it  is  impotent  to  prevent. 

So  far  as  the  dread  of  death  affects  us,  excepting 
in  those  on  the  threshold  only  of  adult  life,  it  is  the 
fear  of  losing  those  we  love,  rather  than  fear  for 
ourselves.  To  the  young  man  or  maiden  only  now 
grown  up,  rejoicing  in  health  and  strength,  it  is  often 
a  horror  to  think  even  of  their  own  death.  They 
cannot  realize  its  possibility.  To  those  later  in  life 
its  constant  recurrence  familiarizes  the  thought,  and 
it  is  calmly  considered  as  the  indefinite  yet  the  inevit- 
able, but  even  in  sickness  with  little  fear,  and  often 
looked  forward  to  as  a  release  from  sorrow  and  a 
welcomed  rest.  The  sudden  approach,  or  the  threat 
of  a  violent  death,  calls  forth,  of  course,  instinctive 
efforts  to  avoid  it,  but  in  other  cases  its  coming  is 
usually  borne  with  resignation  and  with  fortitude. 
But  the  overpowering  sorrow  that  Death  ever  brings 
is  that  of  losing  forever  from  our  lives  those  we  love; 
it  thrills  us  with  dread.  No  grief  can  equal  this ;  all 

364 


THE   SHADOW  OF  DEATH 

other  ills  are  then  but  trivial.  When  the  parting 
comes,  the  emptiness  of  life,  the  aching  void,  the 
absence  of  the  one  that  is  gone,  nearly  breaks  the 
heart.  The  closer  the  tie  that  bound  our  lives  together, 
the  deeper  the  sorrow  in  their  severance ;  very  many 
have  prayed  then  for  their  own  death — many  have 
sought  for  and  found  it.  When  the  dying  one  has 
suffered  much,  death  is  often  welcomed  as  a  release 
both  to  the  dying  and  to  the  living.  -The  one  to  be 
at  rest;  the  others  to  know  that  his  sufferings  are 
ended.  On  the  eve  of  a  long  separation,  the  one  who 
suffers  most  is  he  who  stays  in  the  deserted  home ; 
the  departing  one  leaves  for  new  thoughts  and  scenes 
in  the  life  beyond;  so  should  we  try  to  think  of  those 
who  cross  before  us,  to  the  unknown  shore. 

The  Evolution  of  knowledge  within  the  last  hun- 
dred years  has  not  only  done  much  to  mitigate  suf- 
fering to  the  living,  but  has  saved  from  death  and 
returned  to  a  continued  long  and  happy  life  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  those  who  in  the  olden  days 
must  have  died  inevitably.  Vaccination,  discovered 
and  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  has  nearly  extirpated 
one  of  the  most  frequent,  frightful  and  fatal  diseases 
that  ever  afflicted  man.  The  germicidal  treatment 
introduced  by  Sir  Joseph  Lister  in  Surgery  has  kept 
a  countless  number  from  an  early  grave.  Anaesthetics 
have  taken  away  pain  and  the  fear  of  pain  from  the 
365 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

surgeon's  knife,  and  relieved  woman  of  the  suffer- 
ing that,  according  to  the  Hebrew  myth,  God  put 
upon  her  as  a  punishment.  Death  in  itself  is  not  an 
evil,  intruding  needlessly  into  the  world ;  it  is  only 
its  premature  and  avoidable  occurrence  that  is  so. 
It  is  the  provision  that  renders  possible  the  entrance 
of  each  young,  fresh  life.  In  the  course  of  Nature, 
the  young  should  live  to  grow  old;  but  we  know  that 
in  this  life,  Death  not  only  will  come,  but  it  must  come. 
The  progress  of  humanity,  the  maintenance  of  the 
highest  type  of  the  living,  is  dependent  upon  the 
offspring  slowly  but  surely  improving  beyond  the 
parent ;  not  in  a  few  rare  and  individual  instances 
from  time  to  time,  but  in  the  general  advancement  of 
all.  This  cannot  be,  excepting  by  the  race  of  man 
being  kept  ever  in  full  vigor  by  the  displacement  of 
the  old  lives  by  those  young,  and,  we  trust,  better 
ones,  born  of  us. 

We,  who  in  the  sunset  of  life  look  back  from  the 
summit  of  old  age  to  the  beginning  of  the  road 
we  traveled  on  in  youth — that  road  that  seemed 
so  endless  then,  but  that  now  seems  so  short — we  can 
see  that  many  of  the  obstacles  we  stumbled  over, 
have  been  stepping-stones  in  our  path  to  a  better  life. 
"We  can  see  the  errors  we  have  made,  and  the  physical 
and  moral  dangers  we  were  saved  from,  often  by  no 
saving  virtue  of  our  own.  Our  failures  even  have 

366 


THE  RETROSPECT  OF  LIFE 

led  to  ultimate  success.  Above  all,  we  can  see  that 
if  we  had  only  known  what  we  might  have  known 
how  much  sorrow  would  have  been  spared  to  others 
as  well  as  to  ourselves. 

We  can  now  fully  recognize  the  change  for  the 
better  in  man's  welfare  since  we  were  young  men, 
many  years  ago.  Without  considering  the  changes 
that  have  made  alike  the  poor  and  the  rich  more  com- 
fortable, the  greater  benefits  to  all  men  are  beyond 
all  number.  As  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  Century 
closed  the  delusion  of  the  belief  in  demoniac  influence 
and  in  witchcraft,  and  stopped  the  torture  and  the 
frightful  death  of  its  helpless  and  innocent  victims, 
so  this  closing  century  witnesses  the  lessening  and  dis- 
appearance of  other  errors.  In  most  of  our  Colleges 
are  now  taught,  approvingly,  the  truths  that  half  a 
century  ago  would  have  insured  dismissal,  and  that 
three  centuries  ago  would  have  brought  the  teacher 
to  the  stake.  The  old  belief  in  idealism  and  a-priori 
reasoning  has  well-nigh  died  out,  and  most  of  the 
learned  men  of  all  the  world  turn  from  mere  meta- 
physical reveries,  or  from  the  dogma  of  an  angry 
and  vindictive  Judge,  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  the 
living  God,  and  to  the  manifestations  of  His  power 
in  the  guidance  of  the  human  intellect  and  in  the 
execution  of  His  will. 

The  study  of  the  course  of  Nature  has  shown  con- 
367 


TttE  PATS  OF  EVOLUTJ03F 

that  this  life  is  the  process  of  evolution, 
from  a  lower,  imperfect  condition  of  existence  to  a 
higher  and  a  better  one.  Tne  study  of  the  history 
oi  the  past  ages  1099011  the  same  troth.  Tne  know  I— 
edge  of  to-day  is  not  the  repetition  of  the  vague  and 
uncertain  theories  of  days  long  past — of  the  men  who 
•emselves  die  sole  custodians  of  troth,  and 
to  the  dungeon  or  to  death  all  who  dared 
M  iiii  tfip**i , 

We  now  know  that  the  troth  in  all  things  can  be 
learned  only  so  far  as  our  minds  are  capable  of  un- 
the&cts  and  phenomena  presented.     We 
that  our  Acuities  are  limited;  the  ultimate 

OK  9LU.  BMimyfi  *^  otvoou  our  coniiMnEudisiOD^ 
Science  teaches  Man  humility  by  showing  him  his 
place  in  nature.  Though  he  may  think  himself  in 
-Apprehension  how  like  a  God,"  in  reality  he  is  only 
the  "Fkngqn  of  animals."  Neither  to  the  individual 

with  absolute  authority— to  be  in&ffible.  What  in 
the  limited  extent  of  human  knowledge  k  to-day  con- 
sidered established,  may  to-morrow,  by  better  knowl- 
edge, be  overthrown.  The  troth,  as  known  to  Science, 

The  Phiteophy  of  to-day,  the  outgrowdi  of  Scien- 
5  we  lave  endeavored  to  show, 


die  sufficiency  of  the  evidence  produced.     To 


THE  RELIGION  OF  EVOLUTION 

most  thoughtful  men  of  Scientific  training  the  testi- 
mony that  Nature  offers  is  convincing.  There  is  one 
ever-acting,  all-sustaining,  wise,  intelligent  power,  in 
whom  we  live  and  more  and  have  our  being.  Xaiu  re 
as  an  Entity  has  no  existence.  Xature  is  merely  the 
personification  of  the  past  and  present  acts  of  the 
ultimate  power  and  volition  that  governs  alL  To 
think  of  Nature  as  apart  from,  and  not  a  part  of,  the 
First  Cause— God— is  to  believe  (in  the  words  of  the 
AthfliKH"?!"  creed)  that u  there  is  not  one  Incompre- 
hensible, but  two  Incomprehensibles."  AH  that  we 
know  of  God,  or  that  we  can  possibly  know  in  this 
life,  is  to  be  learned  by  the  observation  of  His  works, 
including  therein  the  life,  history  and  intelligence  of 
man  as  a  part  thereof  In  stating  that  die  power 
which  governs  the  universe  is  not  apart  from  nor 
outside  of  nature,  but  in  nature,  no  essential  praJfafr- 
tion  of  the  attributes  of  God  is  involved  or  intended. 
The  metaphysician,  in  defining  the  Absolute,  pro- 
jected only  his  own  ideas  therein.  Spinoza  reduced 
all  existence  to  Substance;  made  God,  die  Absolute 
Being,  the  thinking  and  extended  Substance ;  nomi- 
nally of  infinite  attributes,  but  by  Spinoza's  negations 
leaving  only  a  vague  idea  of  eternal  intelligent  in- 
active existence.  Science  avoids  this  error.  It  is  folly 
and  presumption  in  us  to  try  to  comprehend  the  abstract 
nature  of  the  existence  of  God  apart  from  his  manifes- 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

tation  in  his  works.  To  study  the  operation  of  his  laws 
-governing  the  physical,  mental  and  moral  life  on  this 
earth,  and  when  we  know  the  laws  to  obey  them,  is 
our  duty  and  is  the  extent  of  our  capacity.  To  live 
rightly  in  the  life  given  us,  and'  then  to  trust  our 
near  and  our  ultimate  future  to  the  disposal  of  Him 
who  gives  all  life ;  should  be  not  only  our  philosophy, 
but  may  well  be  also  our  religion.  As  Edwin  Arnold 
wrote,  quoting  the  words  of  the  young  Hindoo 
Mother — 

"  But  for  me 

What  good  I  see  humbly  I  seek  to  do, 
And  live  obedient  to  the  law,  in  trust 
That  what  will  come,  and  must  come,  shall  come  well." 

To  many  men  and  to  most  women  a  philosophy 
which  satisfies  wise  and  thoughtful  men  is  not  enough. 
They  ask  for  something  that  appeals  more  to  the  emo- 
tions ;  that  is  more  capable  of  outward  demonstration 
and  ceremonial  observance ;  in  other  words,  that  is 
anthropomorphic.  Early  associations,  early  education 
and  the  force  of  habit  make  pleasing  and  desirable  to 
many  minds  beliefs  and  customs  that  Science  does 
not  consider  within  its  province.  But  whatever  more 
may  be  wished  for,  and  believed  in,  can  only  supple- 
ment the  great  truth  which  Science  teaches;  the  early 
lesson  that  all  should  learn. 
370 


THE  FUTURE  LIFE 

"Let  us  hear  the  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter. 
Fear  God  and  keep  his  commandments,  for  this  is  the 
whole  duty  of  man.  For  God  shall  bring  every  work 
into  judgment  with  every  secret  thing,  whether  it  be 
good  or  whether  it  be  evil." 

"  Then  shall  the  dust  return  to  the  earth  as  it  was, 
and  the  spirit  shall  return  unto  God  who  gave  it." 

Thus  nearly  2,500  years  ago,  Koheleth  ended  his 
mournful  wail  over  the  vanity  and  the  emptiness  of 
life.  The  knowledge  of  the  present  day  can  give  a 
purpose  and  a  meaning  to  that  life  in  which  he  found 
none.  The  duty  in  life  and  the  end  of  life  are  the 
same  to  us  now  as  it.  was  then ;  not  all  enjoyment  and 
not  sorrow,  but  to  make  our  life  and  all  lives  wiser 
and  better. 

Science  makes  no  pretence  to  raise  the  veil  beyond 
the  grave.  Few  analogies  that  this  world  has  shown 
are  applicable  to  that  "  country  from  whose  bourn  no 
traveler  returns  ; "  but  Science  knows  no  reason  that 
if  our  lives  were  rightful  when  we  lived,  why  they 
may  not  be  renewed  in  a  life  to  come.  The  answer 
is  not  for  usy  but  for  God  to  give ;  whether  for  each 
one  or  for  all.  We  may  rest  assured  in  the  belief  that 
if  it  will  be  for  our  good,  if  it  will  be  better  so,  the  life 
hereafter  will  be  given.  That  which  is  best  to  do 
will  be  done.  Our  individual  personality  would  de- 
pend upon  the  preservation  of  memory.  If  every  trait 

37i 


THE   PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

of  our  present  lives  were  reproduced,  but  with  forget- 
fulness  of  the  past,  our  identity  would  be  gone ;  it 
would  not  be  ourselves.  We  might  repeat  a  life  such 
as  we  had  lived  before,  without  knowledge  of  it,  and 
without  knowing  those  we  had  loved  and  lost.  But 
as  our  own  actions  mainly  make  our  lives,  the  memory 
thereof,  if  retained,  could  then  make  for  us  an  actual 
Heaven  or  a  living  Hell.  In  this  life  the  brain 
bears  record  in  its  imprints  of  our  thoughts  and  voli- 
tions. Conscious  or  unconscious  cerebration  will  re- 
produce in  memory  much  of  that  which  is  long  past 
and  gone.  Our  poor  relations,  the  birds  and  beasts, 
transmit  to  their  offspring  those  imprints  that  lead  to 
acts  which  we  call  instincts ;  they  are  inherited  mem- 
ories. A  new  life  hereafter,  reproducing  in  another 
and  a  higher  brain  the  duplicate  records  of  an  earlier 
brain,  would  be  a  resurrection  of  the  life  that  is  gone. 
Of  course,  no  assertion  is  intended  to  be  made ;  the 
conjecture  only  that  it  might  be  so,  suggests  that  if 
God  so  wills,  a  future  life  would  be  a  miracle,  no 
greater  than  the  life  we  live. 

The  teaching  of  early  Christianity,  of  St.  Paul, 
many  of  the  patristic  and  other  writers,  was  not  the 
survival  of  the  soul  after  the  death  of  the  body,  but 
the  resurrection  of  the  body  and  the  soul — the  giv- 
ing of  another  life  to  the  body  and  the  reborn  soul. 

The  Gospel  learned  from  the  doctrine  of  Evolution 
372 


THE  FUTURE   LIFE 

is  that  the  virtues,  as  well  as  the  sins  of  the  father,  are 
often  transmitted  to  the  children  long  beyond  the 
third  and  fourth  generation.  It  further  teaches  that 
the  trials  and  troubles  of  life  are  not  needlessly  given, 
but  that  they  are  the  prompting  causes  and  incentives 
that  lead  to  a  higher  existence.  We  may  reasonably 
believe  that  the  same  endeavor  on  our  part  to  make 
the  Goody  while  in  this  life,  still  better,  may  fit  us,  if 
it  shall  be  in  the  providence  of  God,  for  a  future  life 
in  a  better  world  to  come. 

The  physical  conditions  of  another  life  might  be 
very  different  from  those  now  on  Earth.  Here, 
Death  and  Life  walk  hand  in  hand.  We  are  animals 
born  to  die.  This  world  in  time  may  also  die,  or  be 
unfit  for  all  Life  as  we  now  only  know  it ;  but  there 
are  countless  millions  of  other  worlds.  On  many  of 
them,  although  there  may  be  those  who  live  as  we 
live  and  die  as  we  die,  yet  it  is  also  true  that  with 
them  a  time  may  come  when  their  Sun's  light  and 
heat  shall  fade,  and  that  of  all  other  Sun's — the  stars 
—die,  too. 

The  form  of  energy  on  which  organic  life  here  de- 
pends— the  disruption  of  Carbon  Dioxide  and  its  re- 
formation— would  be  impossible  then  ;  but  that  Intel- 
ligence that  never  dies  might  find  expression  in  con- 
ditions that  we  can  conceive  not  of.  "In  my  Father's 
house  are  many  mansions."  Here  we  live  as  but  for 

373 


THE  PATH  OF  EVOLUTION 

a  day,  then  pass  away ;  and  with  our  life  pass  away 
our  weaknesses,  our  follies  and  our  crimes.  We  and 
they — gone  forever !  But  if  while  living  there  is  that 
within  us  that  is  worth  enduring,  may  it  not  be  found 
worthy  of  a  non-perishable  life,  wherein  the  errors 
and  the  follies  would  not  enter?  For  in  that  life 
only  those  would  live  who  had  been  proved — who 
were  fitted  for  an  existence  in  which  there  could  be  no 
corrections,  no  removals  by  death — a  reunion  with 
those  they  have  loved ;  an  Evolution  even  then  con- 
tinued to  still  wider  knowledge,  and  eternal  life. 

FINIS 
374 


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